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Abstract. In its 28 years of existence as an independent state, Kazakhstan has had to come up with an entire foreign policy. The process was driven by multiple objectives, for a large part aimed at ensuring the success of the broader state-building project: the preservation of national sovereignty, political stability, economic growth, and taking on international responsibilities. This strategy, shaped at once by the nature of the political regime and the constraints of the regional system, was inspired by the convergence of economic, political, and geopolitical considerations. Taking stock of Kazakhstan’s external action, this article finds correspondence with the key tenets of middle power doctrine, pointing to a widely unacknowledged reading of the country’s external action: the pursuit of international status.

Introduction

Accounts of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy often highlight its energy and dynamism: whether in relations with the great powers, the internationalization of the mineral sector, multilateral diplomacy, or other areas, culminating in the election to a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.

Though analysts have typically considered such kind of initiatives as disjointed episodes, they appear to reveal a common thread materializing a certain vision and planning. Tellingly, the 2006 strategic document Kazakhstan 2050 – the updated version of the 1997 Kazakhstan 2030 – aims to position the country among the fifty most competitive countries in the world [1].

Together with a heavier foreign policy footprint, the country has also experienced the gradual amelioration of its economic indicators prior to a pronounced slowdown between 2014 and 2016. Kazakhstan had displayed an economic vitality buoyed by hydrocarbon exports, becoming the second largest economy in the CIS thanks to a GDP of more than $230 billion in 2013. However, the drop in oil prices clipped that figure to $137 billion in 2016 before it climbed again in 2017 reaching $172.941 billion in 2018. In 2015, direct investment jumped by 80% in the hydrocarbons and by 30% in the agricultural sector [2]. That same year, the World Bank recognized Kazakhstan as a middle-income country thanks to a per capita GDP of $10,500 [3]. The World Economic Forum placed it 50th out of 144 countries in their Global Competitiveness Ranking ^[5] , and WIPO ranked it number two in Central and Southern Asia in the Global Innovation Index [4]. In 2014, Astana announced a 36% increase in its military budget, namely from $2 to $2.7 billion by 2017 [5].^[6]

The International Relations literature has recently taken an interest in exploring the relevance of status concerns as a driver of state foreign policy and strategy (Larson, Paul and Wohlforth 2014).^[7] However, it has focused primarily on emerging great powers as an object of analysis. Albeit improving, Kazakhstan’s measurements as reviewed above are hardly suggestive of a great power. However, the country does display growing rates of (relative) economic growth and military expenditures, which are key indicators used to measure power trajectories (see Organski & Kugler, 1980). Thus, taking stock of this pattern in light of the asserted intentions of the Kazakh government, as reported consistently in key strategic documents, begs the question whether Kazakhstan can be considered an emerging power in its own right.

Sure enough, Kazakhstan’s GDP is far from the trillion-dollar-plus of the established middle powers. However, as we find out, the question is not entirely moot, and so this article examines to what extent does its foreign policy behavior conform with the middle power style.

The first section reviews some of the main contributions in order to distil a broad analytical framework highlighting the key attributes of a middle power, consisting of the concurrent and balanced pursuit of nationalism, activism and internationalism. In sections two, three and four I contrast these criteria against evidence of concrete policy. I conclude by nuancing the outlook for Kazakhstan as a potential middle power.

What is a Middle Power? The Basic Elements of an Elusive Status

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As with other similar constructs, its origins in the policy realm gave the term its successive ambiguity as a concept.

It is commonly highlighted that a preliminary requirement is an underlying political choice by the national élites of the country in question [7] [8]. A choice whose origins can be multiple: be it ideology, identity, national role conception, leaders’ personality, or a given configuration of the interests of the dominant socio-economic groups [8] [9]. In this light, middle power comes down to a foreign policy doctrine, or a “grand construct” [10]. In other words, it represents first and foremost a political symbol, only subsequently becoming an explanatory concept [11].

Provided we have a valid working definition, the concept can be used to make sense of the foreign policy of an entire category of states. Although hierarchical, behavioral, or functional definitions can be found [12]; in practice, the three benchmarks overlap, each merely capturing a single facet of the phenomenon. The literature generally understands that middle ranking economic, military and diplomatic capacities can predict the broad type of foreign policy behavior a country will display.

The literature emphasizes particular behaviors, which, exhibited in a combined, systematic and recurrent manner, denote a middle power. Such behaviors include the “adoption of policies directed to favor international system stability, a tendency toward specialization, the implementation of mediation policies… and, lastly, a pronounced engagement in multilateral institutions” [11, p.44].

This resonates with Robert Cox’s argument according to which some of the main characteristics of a middle power are: “an ability to keep a distance from major conflicts, a degree of autonomy from the major powers, a dedication to international stability, and a commitment to gradual world change” [13, p.827] . In a similar vein, Holbraad saw four roles of middle powers: balancers of the state system, mediators between two opposing states, bridges between rich and poor states, and promoters of international understanding across culturally different states [6, p.25]. Conversely, Ungerer reduced the middle power “policy style” to the adherence to just three key principles: nationalism, activism and internationalism [8, pp. 542543]. Because these three concepts actually subsume all of the salient behaviors found in the literature, this contribution is fruitful for building a practical analytical framework.

nationalism: Positioning on the International Scene

The first component of the nationalist pillar in Kazakhstan’s foreign policy is diversification. This refers to the so-called “multivector diplomacy”: a term whose coinage is attributed to Nazarbayev himself [14, p.257]. Over the years, this approach has taken the meaning at once of an “organizing principle” in the formulation and implementation of foreign policy, and of a “powerful domestic political symbol” of Kazakhstan’s recent national independence [15]. But more aptly, it has come to describe an approach to statecraft driven by the search for “strategic dividends” [16] [17], through the diversification of partnerships enabling the regime in power to pursue both national interest and political survival, while eschewing great power control [18]. This represents not only a response to the concern for preserving sovereignty and independence vis-à-vis the great powers, but also to the requirements of economic development. Hence, Kazakhstan has been able to knit equally deep and strategic relationships with all of the major power poles extracting considerable political and economic benefits. While Russia, China, the EU and Turkey are the traditional “vectors” of this policy, Asian [19] and Gulf [20] [21] countries are also increasingly represented.

Despite occasional frictions and a wish for emancipation from its former metropole, Russia remains Kazakhstan’s foremost partner. The two countries have one of the deepest bilateral relationships, supported by a net of about 300 treaties and agreements [22]. A multitude of action plans in disparate areas completes the legal framework, such as the current Economic Cooperation Program 2012-2020. Their relationship spans aerospace – mainly around the joint use of the Baikonur spaceport – the use and protection of the Caspian Sea, electric power, hydrocarbons and their transportation, as well as nuclear industries; not to mention a very close military partnership. Kazakhstan is Russia’s de facto number two in the Collective Security Treaty Organization and in the CIS joint air defense system, and plays a key role in the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) launched in 2015, in the economic field. The two countries are also cofounders of the CIS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).

Kazakhstan’s other major partner is China. Their relations began in 1992 when the two needed to demarcate their frontiers following the dissolution of the USSR, resulting in a border agreement two years later. Their partnership has since been broadened to include a great variety of sectors leading to China becoming Kazakhstan’s largest trading partner. The agreement for a pipeline between the two countries was made in 1997. Built by China National Petroleum Corporation and KazMunayGas, the pipeline went into function in 2006, and Chinese interests now control about 25% of Kazakh reserves. Another sector is the fight against terrorism and drug trafficking, notably in the framework of the SCO. But the two have also established strong synergies in the area of economic development, particularly under the Belt and Road Initiative, in which the Central Asian country plays a primary role. It was during his 2013 visit to Astana that Chinese president Xi Jinping announced his signature project.

Kazakhstan has strong relations with the European Union (EU) likewise dating to the early 1990s. Since the adoption of the 2007 EU Central Asia Strategy, relations have focused on the key sectors of trade and investment, development aid, and energy and transport – notably through initiatives like TRACECA and INOGATE respectively. Taken together, the EU is one of Kazakhstan’s main trading partners, and in 2014 was its first client, attracting 36% of its exports (93% of which in the hydrocarbon sector). At the same time, the EU is its third source of imports (19%), and the first for FDI with 50% of investments [23]. Many European companies own large stakes in Caspian oil and gas, including ENI and BP. With the adoption of the Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement in 2015 and the EU’s new Central Asia Strategy in 2019, the relationship appears destined to enter a new phase.

Turkey is another relationship Astana has developed, partly in the context of the wider rediscovery of its Turkic identity. The shared Turkic roots are its glue, and have also favored the opening in the country of several Turkish educational institutions, both secondary and post-secondary. Overall, the two countries have built a dynamic relationship in the political, cultural, economic, humanitarian and defense sectors, leading to the signing in 2009 of a Strategic Partnership Agreement, and to a succession of joint economic programs. The two countries jointly promote the Turkic Council and coordinate their reciprocal positions within multilateral bodies. Turkey supported Kazakhstan in the selection to host the 2017 Expo and in the election to the UN Security Council [24]. All that being said, the common identity has not always born the expected fruits [25].

The second component can be observed in the promotion of the national brand. Since the creation in 2007 of a Department for International Information within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Kazakhstan has undertaken plenty of initiatives aimed at presenting the country in a positive light, underscoring its identity as a crossroad of civilizations and as the “Heart of Eurasia”. Event diplomacy, for instance with the hosting of the 2011 Asian Winter Games or the 2017 Winter Universiade and International Expo, as well as other more minor events; or the fielding of professional teams competing in international sports tournaments serve the same goal. Behind the obsessive image-consciousness is not merely the concern with offering a positive interpretation of the country for global audiences following the embarrassment perceived from the blockbuster film Borat [26], but also that of promoting Kazakhstan on international markets and in foreign capitals. Moreover, the image and symbols propagated for international consumption also serve the indirect purpose of promoting the regime and especially the former president, with internal audiences, thanks to campaigns designed to explain his goals and achievements [27] [28].

In sum, the nationalist prong in

Kazakhstan’s foreign policy is visible in its trademark multivector diplomacy, embodying its own approach to diversification. The latter represents a calculated choice driven by the objective of preserving equidistance from the main powers while maintaining sovereignty and independence in the Eurasian geopolitical context where the country is enmeshed, sandwiched between some of the leading contemporary great powers. The cultivation of national prestige also adheres to the nationalist component because it contributes to elevate the country’s status in the eyes of foreign leaders and improve Kazakhstan’.

Activism: A Responsible Actor of the International Community

Kazakhstan has consistently striven to play a constructive role in an effort to affirm a reputation as a reliable partner of the international community. Rather than promoting liberal values, however, Astana has sought to do this primarily by touting the universal validity of some of its contextual experiences, for example putting forward the complex nature of its multiethnic and multi-confessional social mosaic; the country’s position at the crossroads of civilizations; or even its past as a former nuclear testing ground. Drawing on such experiences, Kazakhstan poses as honest broker in mediation and conflict resolution, as an intermediary for the dialogue between cultures and religions, and as leader in and advocate for denuclearization.

As a mediator at the service of international peace and security, Astana has played an active role in many files. For example, Astana has facilitated the reconciliation between Russia and Turkey following the downing by the Turkish air force, in November 2015, of a Russian bomber in action over the border between Turkey and Syria. The role played by Nazarbayev in the rapprochement is amply recognized [29] [30], with the attribution to the latter of the good offices which led to the Turkish president’s August 2016 visit to Saint Petersburg. It’s been reported that Nazarbayev would have himself suggested the wording for the letter Erdogan sent to Putin.^[8]

Kazakhstan also played a part in the negotiations that led to the Iranian nuclear deal, hosting in Almaty two rounds of talks between Iran and the P5+1 (China, United States, France, United Kingdom, Russia, and Germany). Though the final accord rested on a collective endeavor, Kazakhstan was able to project an image as a mediator, facilitating the eventual adoption of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action[31], from which the U.S. subsequently withdrew. The latter foresaw, among other things, that, under the supervision of the P5+1, the UN and the IAEA, Kazakhstan supply the natural uranium for Iran’s civilian nuclear programme. This condition served to secure Teheran’s consent to the transferring its enriched uranium to Russia for it to be disposed.^[9]

President Nazarbayev then declared his willingness to act as a mediator in the Ukraine crisis, notably thanks to its good relations both in Moscow and Kiev.^[10]However, little has followed from this initial overture, which some saw more as a signal of Astana’s autonomy from Russia intended for Western audiences, rather than as a real desire to intercede [32].^[11]

Lastly, Kazakhstan has hosted the peace talks on Syria in the format of the Astana Process bringing together Russia, Iran, and Turkey. In connection with international dialogue and understanding, the city of Astana has been the stage, since 2003, of the Congress of World Religions. This forum was inaugurated by president Nazarbayev, who had a dedicated “Peace Palace” built for the purpose, as a way of promoting interreligious tolerance following 9/11. Analogous initiatives have been undertaken within multilateral organizations like the OIC and the UN. What is more, Astana militates for causes such as the Universal prohibition against the deployment of weapons of mass destruction in outer space, on the ocean floor, in high seas, and in the Arctic; for the adoption of an International instrument on the prohibition of the use of new scientific discoveries for weapons of mass destruction. The Kazakhstani élan was further displayed in the Peace in the 21st Century Manifesto, aimed to bring stability in the international system by eliminating the root causes of conflicts.

In regards to the promotion of dialogue and understanding, the country is a regular advocate for such principles, as highlighted by initiatives like the Congress of World Religions, the Peace in the 21^st Century Manifesto, or the backing given to a draft UNGA Resolution on the Prohibition of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Lastly, Kazakhstan has consistently exercised leadership and advocacy in a key issue area like denuclearization. This is witnessed by the country’s role in the non-proliferation regime, in the establishment of a Nuclear Weapons Free Zone in Central Asia and the creation on its territory of a LEU Bank under the auspices of the IAEA.

With regards to leadership and sectoral diplomacy, Kazakhstan has been a champion for non-proliferation since the early 1990s: a principled position justified with reference to the utilization of the country’s territory as a nuclear testing ground for the USSR. ^[12] Having inherited some 1,410 nuclear warheads, independent Kazakhstan became a de facto nuclear power. However, by acceding to the nonproliferation regime, it committed to its own gradual denuclearization. Kazakhstan played this card skillfully to accredit itself as a responsible stakeholder and to knit a strategic relationship with the United States (US) [33].

In 1991, Kazakhstan signed the Alma- Ata Declaration on strategic forces with his counterparts from Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. The latter decided the supervision mechanism for the nuclear arsenal of the former USSR extending its obligations in the reduction of strategic offensive weapons. Then, with the adoption of the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Kazakhstan acceded to the Nonproliferation Treaty and accepted to transfer the inherited warheads to Russia. It became, in this way, also a party to the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty between the Soviet Union and the US (START)^[13]. Once completed the repatriation of its nuclear stock to Russia in April 1995, Kazakhstan acceded, in 2002, to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and to the Nuclear Suppliers Group becoming the world’s largest uranium exporter by 2011. Astana then signed the Additional Protocol of the IAEA in February 2004 subsequently joining the Proliferation Security Initiative.

Astana has likewise propelled several diplomatic initiatives in this field. In March 2009, it was instrumental to the establishment of the Nuclear Weapons-free Zone in Central Asia, following the ratification of the 2006 Semipalatinsk Treaty signed with Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. That treaty was complemented in 2014 by a Protocol signed by United Kingdom, US, France, China, and Russia, and committing them not to use nuclear weapons against the zone’s five members. It also militates for the establishment of a Nuclear weapons-free zone in the Middle East.

Lastly, in 2010, Astana offered to host the IAEA Light Enriched Uranium (LEU) bank, resulting in the Host State Agreement eventually being signed in 2015. The facility was opened in August 2017 within the Ulba metallurgical complex in Öskemen, where it is managed by Kazakhstan according to its national rules and regulations but under IAEA supervision. The bank holds a 90 metric tons reserve allowing it to act as a supplier of last resort that member states can access when their regular supply chains are disrupted [34]. This mechanism introduces a further safeguard against proliferation removing the need for countries with civilian nuclear industries to develop enrichment capabilities [35].

In sum, the activist prong in Kazakhstan’s foreign policy is and well-articulated set of measures that take three further facets. In regards to problem-solving and mediation, Nur-Sultan was involved in the Iranian nuclear deal, and played a critical role in facilitating the reconciliation between Russia and Turkey, which was followed by a significant role in the Syrian peace process as the host and facilitator of the Astana Process.

Internationalism

Kazakhstan is not only member of numerous international organizations,

but has also successfully biden to secure leadership positions in some of these. The foreign policy concept 2014-2020 identifies multilateral diplomacy as a major priority, and Kazakhstan actively participates in regional and global organizations, and has even founded one in the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA).

The country is a member of the United Nations since 1992, sitting on two of its regional commissions (UNECE and UNESCAP). Moreover, the country has sat on the executive boards of UNICEF, UNESCO, and UN Women, and been a member of ECOSOC and the Human Rights Council. In the period 2017–2018, Astana was a member of the Security Council. In this role, it sought to contribute to efforts to reinforce regional and global security while advancing its interests through decisionmaking, the promotion of initiatives, and UN cooperation with regional organisations [36]. Stressing the themes of food, water, energy, and nuclear security, the electoral campaign contributed to reinforcing the country’s diplomatic muscle. New embassies were opened in Brazil, Ethiopia, Kuwait, Mexico, South Africa, and Sweden; several special envoys were appointed; and the Permanent Mission in New York was reinforced with extra personnel and the appointment as permanent representative of the person who had served as permanent representative to the OSCE before and during Kazakhstan’s chairmanship: Kairat Abdrakhmanov, subsequently promoted to Minister of foreign affairs between 2016 and 2018.

This exploit followed Kazakhstan’s results within the OSCE, another important platform for its international policy. Having acceded the organization in 1992, the country became in 2010 the first post-soviet state to hold its rotating chairmanship. Whereas the early steps in this direction date back to 2004, Astana’s efforts were only rewarded three years later. The additional year was meant to allow the adoption of reforms in the fields of media freedom, elections and local governance.¹¹ During its term, Astana attempted, with little success, to solve the frozen conflicts in the Caucasus and put forward some other initiatives. For example, it tried to improve the organization’s “incident prevention capacities” to better respond to regional conflicts [37]. It also worked to develop the OSCE’s engagement with Afghanistan, as well as in the 2010 Kyrgyzstan crisis. Moreover, Kazakhstan pushed to revamp the organization into a strategic forum for dialogue between euroAtlantic and euro-Asian worlds, such as conveyed in the Astana Commemorative Declaration [38].

Another example is the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, which Kazakhstan joined in 1995. Though Astana only contributes 1% of the organization’s budget, it played an energic role during its 201112 chairmanship. The organization saw a total of 40 events, including ten ministerial meetings. As underscored in the Astana Declaration, Kazakhstan also promoted dialogue with the West and the opening of the Islamic world to modernity [39], and greater prominence for the Central Asian countries, as reflected in the adopted Plan of Action for Cooperation with Central Asia [40]. Kazakhstan wrapped up its chairmanship in 2012 with the proposal for an Islamic Food Security Organization, whose charter was signed and adopted the following year by 19 countries [41]. Its headquarters were opened in Astana in October 2018.

Kazakhstan is also active in the Turkic Council, bringing together the Turkicspeaking countries of Anatolia, the Caucasus and Central Asia,^[16] as the umbrella organization for a family of agencies active in the spheres of culture, scholarship, parliamentary cooperation and business. While these various entities were created over the years at Turkey’s initiative, the Council itself, founded with the 2009 Nakhichevan Treaty, was actually strongly wanted by the former Kazakh president. Kazakhstan, which hosts the Turkic Academy, has also lobbied to widen the scope of cooperation, with the inclusion of tourism, media and information, also advocating the creation of a common satellite channel [42, p.22].

But the most salient example of Kazakhstan’s multilateralism is probably the CICA. This little-known organization headquartered in Astana is actually the embodiment of a personal initiative of former president Nazarbayev. His dream in 1992 was to create a dialogue and security mechanism for Asia modelled on the OSCE. However, the organization has never been very active, as demonstrated by its modest impact and low productivity in terms of concrete measures. Its first meeting was only held in 1996, when its 15 members’ deputy ministers of foreign affairs met in Almaty. Three years later, the first ministerial meeting adopted the Declaration on Principles Guiding Relations between CICA member states. This was followed, in 2002 by the Almaty Summit – its very first – which adopted the Charter. In 2014, Nazarbayev used the fourth summit in Shanghai to call for the CICA’s revamping into the Organization for Security and Development in Asia, which however has yet to see the day.

The second facet of Nur-Sultan’s internationalism is support for the status quo and for the enforcement of collective security norms. On one hand, it allows it to lend support for an international system premised on international law and the letter of the UN Charter. The country’s 2014-2020 foreign policy concept assigns to the United Nations a central place in the international system as the coordination node of an “equitable and democratic” international order.

On the other hand, the country has taken a role, albeit modest, in peacekeeping. In 2013, the Majilis – the country’s lower house – passed a law permitting the deployment of some 20 military personnel to UN missions in Haiti, Ivory Coast, Liberia and Western Sahara. To increase its contribution, the country’s Ministry of defense is studying the possibility of sending contingents of up to 150 soldiers at a time, and working with the Majilis to table a law clarifying rules of engagement in combat and peacekeeping operations.

The third facet is integration into the global economy and the world trading system. Various initiatives adhere to this goal, such as the accession to the World Trade Organization and membership in the EAEU, both in 2015. The idea for the EAEU was actually put forth by Nazarbayev himself in a speech given in Moscow in the distant 1994. EAEU is a customs union and free trade area whose other members are Armenia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan and Russia. Although accession determined an initial loss of competitiveness due to the new customs duties modelled on Russia’s, Kazakhstan has seen intra-bloc exports grow in successive years. Furthermore, NurSultan is turning the country into a transit centre for intercontinental trade along the East-West and North-South routes. Massive investments have gone into roads and railways as well as ports and Special Economic Zones to expand intermodal connectivity [43]. The opening of the Astana International Financial Centre in 2016 was another significant step designed to position the country as a regional hub for the global financial system and develop the national service industries [44].

Internationalism in Kazakhstan’s foreign policy

Lastly, Kazakhstan has been taking steps to integrate into the global economy, by joining both global (WTO) and regional (EAEU) free trade agreements and by positioning itself as a hub for global finance and logistics, respectively through the creation of the Astana International Financial Center and by joining multiple transport corridors.

In sum, the internationalist prong in Kazakhstan’s foreign policy has three facets. In regards to multilateralism and regionalism, Nur-Sultan is an active member of the UN, having served on the governing bodies of several UN agencies and sitting on the Security Council for the 2017-18 term. Kazakhstan’s engagement with multilateralism is mirrored at the regional level in the country’s role in the OSCE, the OIC, the SCO, the Turkic Council and the CICA.

In regards to support for the status quo and enforcement of collective security norms, Nur-Sultan is a strong supporter of international law as premised in the letter of the UN Charter and other entrenched and consensual principles. Moreover, NurSultan has been exploring the role of military contributor to UN peacekeeping operations to enforce collective security norms.

Conclusion

The foregoing reveals the unexpected adherence of Kazakhstan’s external policy to the doctrine’s main tenets.

The nationalist element is perhaps the most recognizable. Kazakhstan’s efforts to maintain its sovereignty and independence, primarily, through diversification is one of the country’s foreign policy hallmarks. Though some analysts thought that the return of great power competition in the mid 2010’s would undermine the viability of diversification [45] [46] [47], this point of view excessively discounted the approach’s structural roots. Since the outset of geopolitical turbulence in 2014, Kazakhstan’s diversification efforts have – if anything – ticked up, resulting in rekindled and enhanced strategic partnerships with all key partners. Conversely, its branding efforts tend to be well received.

As far as activism, Astana has shown the undisputed ability to find a seat at prestigious tables. However, Astana’s ability to act as a mediator is limited by the means and the scope of its diplomatic network, and this notwithstanding the opening of new embassies in recent years. Astana can provide a platform and facilitate dialogue, perhaps as part of efforts concerted with other partners^[17].

As to internationalism, Astana’s support for multilateralism has earned it the chairmanship of several international organizations and election to the UN Security Council. However, Astana’s impact has been somewhat constrained by its ability to place items related to its priorities on the agenda. Whereas action in support of international law is harder to pin down, Kazakhstan has effectively been able to fill a niche in the global economy as a significant player in energy, logistics, and trade. Commercial, financial and infrastructural indicators are usually positive.

Because advancing a middle power agenda requires support and cooperation from the international community, NurSultan achievements denote a degree of recognition. Perhaps its ability to interpret a possible dialogue between East and West has persuaded international stakeholders on both sides. Nonetheless, this does not in and of itself make of Kazakhstan a full-fledged middle power.

The country does face challenges, especially as it undergoes a domestic political transition, which has yet to find its point of equilibrium.

First, whereas attempts to use foreign policy for domestic goals are frequent, the country’s resources are limited and must often be redirected to face domestic needs.

Although the look of cities like Almaty and Nur-Sultan may give it away, the recognition as a middle-income country does not entail the end of the country’s socio-economic challenges. Notwithstanding the rapid development, the World Bank finds that Kazakhstan’s economy remains overly dependent on the extractive industries, and has weak agricultural, environmental and service sectors.

Second, the limitations in the country’s economic base places a cap on its ability to generate wealth that can be converted into national power. Moreover, dependence on hydrocarbon revenues exposes the country to severe fiscal turbulences each time the market takes a dip.

Third, governance remain marred by much bureaucracy and red tape in both the public and private sectors, sometimes posing an obstacle to the achievement of the government’s objectives.

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• Damian Frank*
  Commonwealth Scientific and Industry Research Organisation (CSIRO), North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia

  *Email: [email protected]
,
• Udayasika Piyasiri
  Commonwealth Scientific and Industry Research Organisation (CSIRO), North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
,
• Nicholas Archer
  Commonwealth Scientific and Industry Research Organisation (CSIRO), North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
,
• Jessica Heffernan
  Commonwealth Scientific and Industry Research Organisation (CSIRO), North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
, and
• Astrid A. M. Poelman
  Commonwealth Scientific and Industry Research Organisation (CSIRO), North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia

• Plants,
• Plant derived food,
• Anatomy,
• Peptides and proteins,

Abstract

Interactions between Brassica vegetables and human saliva can affect in-mouth odor development, which in turn may be linked to individual perception and liking. S-Methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide is a unique substrate present in Brassicas that produces odor-active sulfur volatiles due to the activity of enzymes present in plant tissue and due to bacteria, which may be present to varying extents in an individual’s oral microbiome. Proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry was applied to measure individual differences in sulfur volatile production in real time when fresh human saliva was incubated ex vivo with raw cauliflower for a cohort of child–adult pairs. Large differences in the rate of sulfur volatile production were measured between individuals, but not between age groups. Significant positive relationships were found for volatile production between the adult–child pairs, suggesting a degree of commonality in saliva composition and oral microbiome activity. Furthermore, significant negative relationships were measured between the amount of in-mouth sulfur volatile production and liking for raw cauliflower in children.

Chemicals

Study Overview, Ethical Approval, and Recruitment of Subjects

Hedonic and Perceptual Rating of Individual Brassica Odor Compounds and Brassica Vegetables

Characterization of Odor Impact Volatiles in Broccoli and Cauliflower by Gas Chromatography (GC) Olfactometry

Preparation of Cauliflower Samples for Ex Vivo Saliva Experiment

Human Saliva Collection for Ex Vivo Saliva Experiment

Ex Vivo Saliva Measurement by Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry

Statistical Analysis

Odor-Active Volatiles in Raw and Steamed Cauliflower and Broccoli

Dating Site In The Northwest Were Your Measured In Drinks List

Individual Brassica Odor Perception and Hedonic Ratings

PTR-MS In-Mouth Volatile Changes between Individuals and Age Groups

DMDS = dimethyl disulfide, DMTS = dimethyl trisulfide, allyl-ITC = allyl isothiocyanate, and 1-ITC-3-MB = 1-isothiocyanato-3-methylbutane.

Correlations between Volatiles in Ex Vivo Saliva

Dating Site In The Northwest Were Your Measured In Drinks Made

Correlations between Volatile Production between Adult/Child Pairs

Correlations between Brassica Liking Scores and Ex Vivo Saliva Sulfur Volatiles

Dating Site In The Northwest Were Your Measured In Drinks Like

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   Zabaras, Dimitrios; Roohani, Mahshid; Krishnamurthy, Raju; Cochet, Maeva; Delahunty, Conor M.

   Food & Function (2013), 4 (4), 592-601CODEN: FFOUAI; ISSN:2042-6496. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

   Chem. and sensory characterization of whole and fractionated myrosinase-free exts. from selected Australian-grown, raw Brassica vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and red cabbage) was carried out to det. the contribution of key phytochems. (i.e. glucosinolates, free sugars, phenolics) to the taste profiles of these vegetables. Glucosinolate (GS) and phenolic profiles were detd. by liq. chromatog. coupled with photodiode array detection and mass spectrometry. Ten glucosinolates (GS) were quantified across the vegetables investigated. Brussels sprouts (186.3 μg g-1 FW) followed by broccoli (164.1 μg g-1 FW) were found to contain the most GS. The phenolic profiles of all samples were dominated by hydroxycinnamic acid derivs. As expected, red cabbage was the only vegetable with a significant anthocyanin signal (574.0 μg g-1 FW). Red cabbage (26.7 mg g-1 FW) and cauliflower (18.7 mg g-1 FW) were found to contain a higher concn. of free sugars than Brussels sprouts (12.6 mg g-1 FW) and broccoli (10.2 mg g-1 FW). Descriptive sensory anal. of the whole exts. found sweetness (cauliflower and red cabbage sweeter than broccoli and Brussels sprouts) and bitterness (Brussels sprouts more bitter than others) as the most discriminating attributes. A hydrophilic fraction with sweetness, umami and saltiness as the main attributes was the most taste active fraction across all Brassica whole exts. Sub-fractionation showed that this fraction was also bitter but the presence of sugars counteracted bitterness. Several components within each ext. were found to contribute to the bitterness of whole Brassica exts. The total and individual GS content alone could not explain the perceived bitterness of these exts. Phenolics and/or other components are likely to be contributing to the bitterness assocd. with these vegetables.

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   A review with 137 refs. Dietary phytonutrients found in vegetables and fruit appear to lower the risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Studies on the mechanisms of chemoprotection have focused on the biol. activity of plant-based phenols and polyphenols, flavonoids, isoflavones, terpenes, and glucosinolates. Enhancing the phytonutrient content of plant foods through selective breeding or genetic improvement is a potent dietary option for disease prevention. However, most, if not all, of these bioactive compds. are bitter, acrid, or astringent and therefore aversive to the consumer. Some have long been viewed as plant-based toxins. As a result, the food industry routinely removes these compds. from plant foods through selective breeding and a variety of debittering processes. This poses a dilemma for the designers of functional foods because increasing the content of bitter phytonutrients for health may be wholly incompatible with consumer acceptance. Studies on phytonutrients and health ought to take sensory factors and food preferences into account.

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   Hanschen, F. S.; Schreiner, M.Isothiocyanates, Nitriles, and Epithionitriles from Glucosinolates Are Affected by Genotype and Developmental Stage in Brassica oleracea Varieties. Front. Plant Sci.2017, 8, 1095 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01095

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   Isothiocyanates, Nitriles, and Epithionitriles from Glucosinolates Are Affected by Genotype and Developmental Stage in Brassica oleracea Varieties

   Frontiers in plant science (2017), 8 (), 1095 ISSN:1664-462X.

   Vegetables of the Brassica oleracea group, such as broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage, play an important role for glucosinolate consumption in the human diet. Upon maceration of the vegetable tissue, glucosinolates are degraded enzymatically to form volatile isothiocyanates, nitriles, and epithionitriles. However, only the uptake of isothiocyanates is linked to the cancer-preventive effects. Thus, it is of great interest to evaluate especially the isothiocyanate formation. Here, we studied the formation of glucosinolates and their respective hydrolysis products in sprouts and fully developed vegetable heads of different genotypes of the five B. oleracea varieties: broccoli, cauliflower as well as white, red, and savoy cabbages. Further, the effect of ontogeny (developmental stages) during the head development on the formation of glucosinolates and their respective hydrolysis products was evaluated at three different developmental stages (mini, fully developed, and over-mature head). Broccoli and red cabbage were mainly rich in 4-(methylsulfinyl)butyl glucosinolate (glucoraphanin), whereas cauliflower, savoy cabbage and white cabbage contained mainly 2-propenyl (sinigrin) and 3-(methylsulfinyl)propyl glucosinolate (glucoiberin). Upon hydrolysis, epithionitriles or nitriles were often observed to be the main hydrolysis products, with 1-cyano-2,3-epithiopropane being most abundant with up to 5.7 μmol/g fresh weight in white cabbage sprouts. Notably, sprouts often contained more than 10 times more glucosinolates or their hydrolysis products compared to fully developed vegetables. Moreover, during head development, both glucosinolate concentrations as well as hydrolysis product concentrations changed and mini heads contained the highest isothiocyanate concentrations. Thus, from a cancer-preventive point of view, consumption of mini heads of the B. oleracea varieties is recommended.

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   Short-term vegetable intake by young children classified by 6-n-propylthoiuracil bitter-taste phenotype

   American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2006), 84 (1), 245-251CODEN: AJCNAC; ISSN:0002-9165. (American Society for Nutrition)

   Background: Genetic variation in sensitivity to the bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) is thought to play a role in the acceptance and rejection of bitter-tasting vegetables by young children. Objectives: We investigated the relation between the PROP bitter-taste phenotype and acceptance and consumption of vegetables by young children. We hypothesized that nontasters of PROP would give higher hedonic ratings to bitter-tasting vegetables and would consume more bitter vegetables than would tasters of PROP. Design: Sixty-five preschool children were identified as tasters (n = 24) or nontasters (n = 41) of PROP. Children were allowed to select from among 5 types of vegetables (black olives, cucumbers, carrots, red pepper, and raw broccoli) to consume in a free-choice intake test and to give hedonic ratings to the vegetables. Results: The nontaster children consumed more vegetables than did the taster children during the free-choice test (0.91 servings compared with 0.48 servings; P < 0.05). This difference reflected the higher consumption of the more bitter-tasting vegetables (olives, cucumber, and broccoli) by the nontaster children (P < 0.05). Only 8% of the nontaster children consumed no vegetables in the free-choice test compared with 32% of taster children (P < 0.03). The nontaster children also liked raw broccoli more than did the taster children in the hedonic test (P < 0.05). Conclusions: The nontaster children consumed more vegetables, particularly the vegetables that were bitter tasting, than did the taster children during a free-choice intake test. These novel findings suggest that the PROP bitter-taste phenotype contributes to the development of vegetable acceptance and consumption patterns during early childhood.

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   Ontogeny of taste preferences: basic biology and implications for health

   American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2014), 99 (3(S)), 704S-711SCODEN: AJCNAC; ISSN:0002-9165. (American Society for Nutrition)

   A review. Health initiatives address childhood obesity in part by encouraging good nutrition early in life. This review highlights the science that shows that children naturally prefer higher levels of sweet and salty tastes and reject lower levels of bitter tastes than do adults. Thus, their basic biol. does not predispose them to favor the recommended low-sugar, low-sodium, vegetable-rich diets and makes them esp. vulnerable to our current food environment of foods high in salt and refined sugars. The good news is that sensory experiences, beginning early in life, can shape preferences. Mothers who consume diets rich in healthy foods can get children off to a good start because flavors are transmitted from the maternal diet to amniotic fluid and mother's milk, and breastfed infants are more accepting of these flavors. In contrast, infants fed formula learn to prefer its unique flavor profile and may have more difficulty initially accepting flavors not found in formula, such as those of fruit and vegetables. Regardless of early feeding mode, infants can learn through repeated exposure and dietary variety if caregivers focus on the child's willingness to consume a food and not just the facial expressions made during feeding. In addn., providing complementary foods low in salt and sugars may help protect the developing child from excess intake later in life. Early-life experiences with healthy tastes and flavors may go a long way toward promoting healthy eating, which could have a significant impact in addressing the many chronic illnesses assocd. with poor food choice.

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   The development of sweet taste: From biology to hedonics

   Mennella Julie A; Bobowski Nuala K; Reed Danielle R

   Reviews in endocrine & metabolic disorders (2016), 17 (2), 171-8 ISSN:.

   From the age of 2 years, an American child is more likely to consume a sugar-sweetened product than a fruit or vegetable on any given day-a troubling statistic, given that food preferences are established early in childhood, as well as the strong association between this dietary pattern and increased risk of developing a number of chronic diseases. Here, we review the ontogeny and biopsychology of sweet taste, highlighting how a biological drive to prefer sweetness at high concentrations during childhood, which would have conferred an advantage in environments of scarcity, now predisposes children to overconsume all that is sweet in a modern food system replete with added sugars. We review the power of sweet taste to blunt expressions of pain and mask bad tastes in foods as well as factors that predispose some to consume high-sugar diets, including experiential learning and taste preferences driven in part by genetics. Understanding children's unique vulnerability to our current food environment, rich in both nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners, is highlighted as a priority for future research to develop evidence-based strategies to help establish healthy dietary behaviors early in life.

   https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2s%252FgslWrtA%253D%253D&md5=c258dada98ccdcb7b3c589f1deb0f0c7
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   Marks, H. S.; Hilson, J. A.; Leichtweis, H. C.; Stoewsand, G. S.S-Methylcysteine sulfoxide in Brassica vegetables and formation of methyl methanethiosulfinate from Brussels sprouts. J. Agric. Food Chem.1992, 40, 2098– 2101, DOI: 10.1021/jf00023a012

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   S-Methylcysteine sulfoxide in Brassica vegetables and formation of methyl methanethiosulfinate from Brussels sprouts

   Marks, Howard S.; Hilson, Julie A.; Leichtweis, Harry C.; Stoewsand, Gilbert S.

   Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (1992), 40 (11), 2098-101CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561.

   The naturally occurring compd. S-methylcysteine sulfoxide (SMCSO) was detd. in broccoflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and cauliflower. This compd. has a role in the aroma and flavor of these vegetables and appears to be involved with the inhibition of exptl. carcinogenesis. Brussels sprouts had the highest concn. of SMCSO, and were used to identify the cystine lyase-mediated enzymic conversion products, including Me methanethiosulfinate (MMTSO). MMTSO, di-Me trisulfide, and pyruvate can be formed facilely in a simplified enzymic model system, and generation of MMTSO was confirmed in a water ext. of macerated Brussels sprouts. Formation of MMTSO was strongly dependent on the pH of the vegetable juice. After 24 h, only traces of MMTSO were obsd. at the developed acidic pH of Brussels sprouts, although considerable amts. were formed at an adjusted basic pH. This is the first evidence that MMTSO is enzymically derived from SMCSO under natural conditions.

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10. 10

    Kiddle, G. A.; Bennett, R. N.; Hick, A. J.; Wallsgrove, R. M.C-S lyase activities in leaves of crucifers and non-crucifers, and the characterization of three classes of C-S lyase activities from oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Plant, Cell Environ.1999, 22, 433– 445, DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3040.1999.00416.x

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    C-S lyase activities in leaves of crucifers and non-crucifers, and the characterization of three classes of C-S lyase activities from oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.)

    Kiddle, G. A.; Bennett, R. N.; Hick, A. J.; Wallsgrove, R. M.

    Plant, Cell and Environment (1999), 22 (5), 433-445CODEN: PLCEDV; ISSN:0140-7791. (Blackwell Science Ltd.)

    C-S lyases in plants are involved in primary and secondary metab., and in glucosinolate-contg. species may be involved in glucosinolate biosynthesis. Exts. from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) leaves were assayed for several C-S lyase activities. Four activities [using L-cystine, L-cystathionine, S-(2-benzothiazolyl)-L-Cys (SBC) and S-benzyl-L-Cys] were investigated in detail. All are developmentally regulated (highest in youngest leaves), and differentially inhibited by iodoacetamide, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) and EDTA. Thermal stabilities and pH optima were also distinct. Competitive inhibition of the SBC lyase activity with a variety of sulfur-contg. compds. indicated that cystine lyase contributes to SBC degrdn., and this enzyme may cleave a wide range of compds., both aliph. and arom., but other 'SBC lyases' were also present. Putative arom. glucosinolate intermediates were cleaved by the rape enzymes. Developmental and biochem. studies indicate that at least three classes of C-S lyase activity are present in rape leaves: cystathionine β-lyase, cystine lyase and a group of relatively non-specific lyases. C-S lyase prepns. from other glucosinolate- and non-glucosinolate-contg. species were capable of cleaving a no. of aliph. and arom. conjugates. The highest activities were detected in glucosinolate-contg. species and Allium cepa (onion). C-S lyase activities in non-glucosinolate-contg. species (tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, and barley, Hordeum vulgare) were much lower.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1MXktVeisrk%253D&md5=c39e737957b679913ab5c16b18771392
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    Edmands, W. M. B.; Gooderham, N. J.; Holmes, E.; Mitchell, S. C.S-Methyl-l-cysteine sulphoxide: the Cinderella phytochemical?. Toxicol. Res.2013, 2, 11– 22, DOI: 10.1039/C2TX20030A

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    S-Methyl-l-cysteine sulphoxide: the Cinderella phytochemical?

    Edmands, William M. B.; Gooderham, Nigel J.; Holmes, Elaine; Mitchell, Stephen C.

    Toxicology Research (Cambridge, United Kingdom) (2013), 2 (1), 11-22CODEN: TROEE8; ISSN:2045-4538. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

    A review. Many vegetables considered beneficial to human health contain the amino acid deriv., S-methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide. This plant secondary metabolite functions as a phytoalexin with strong anti-microbial activity preventing pathogenesis in growing plants. The potent biol. activity of S-methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide was first identified in ruminant animals as a toxicant, where it was demonstrated to be the kale anemia factor'. Contrary to this toxicity, scattered reports in the literature have since shown anti-carcinogenic, anti-diabetic and cardiovascular effects in exptl. animals. It has also recently been identified as a biomarker of cruciferous vegetable intake in a human dietary intervention study and a potentially significant constituent of the human metabolome. Considering the abundance and wide distribution of S-methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide it is surprising that it has not been the subject of greater scrutiny as a chemoprotective agent and significant contributor to the purported health benefits of various plant foods. This review aims to consolidate current knowledge surrounding this amino acid deriv. and provide an impetus for its further examn.

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    Cooper, A. J. L.; Krasnikov, B. F.; Niatsetskaya, Z. V.; Pinto, J. T.; Callery, P. S.; Villar, M. T.; Artigues, A.; Bruschi, S. A.Cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases: important roles in the metabolism of naturally occurring sulfur and selenium-containing compounds, xenobiotics and anticancer agents. Amino Acids2011, 41, 7– 27, DOI: 10.1007/s00726-010-0552-0

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    Amino Acids (2011), 41 (1), 7-27CODEN: AACIE6; ISSN:0939-4451. (SpringerWienNewYork)

    A review. Cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases are pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-contg. enzymes that catalyze β-elimination reactions with cysteine S-conjugates that possess a good leaving group in the β-position. The end-products are aminoacrylate and a S-contg. fragment. The aminoacrylate tautomerizes and hydrolyzes to pyruvate and NH3. The mammalian cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases thus far identified are enzymes involved in amino acid metab. that catalyze β-lyase reactions as non-physiol. side-reactions. Most are aminotransferases. In some cases the lyase is inactivated by reaction products. The cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases are of much interest to toxicologists because they play an important key role in the bioactivation (toxication) of halogenated alkenes, some of which are produced on an industrial scale and are environmental contaminants. The cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases were reviewed in this journal previously. Here, the authors focus on more recent findings regarding: (1) the identification of enzymes assocd. with high-mol.-wt. cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases in the cytosolic and mitochondrial fractions of rat liver and kidney; (2) the mechanism of syncatalytic inactivation of rat liver mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase by the nephrotoxic β-lyase substrate, S-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine (the cysteine S-conjugate of tetrafluoroethylene); (3) toxicant channeling of reactive fragments from the active site of mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase to susceptible proteins in the mitochondria; (4) the involvement of cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases in the metab./bioactivation of drugs and natural products; and (5) the role of cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases in the metab. of selenocysteine Se-conjugates. Here, the authors emphasize the fact that cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases are biol. more important than hitherto appreciated.

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13. 13

    Frank, D.; Piyasiri, U.; Archer, N.; Jenifer, J.; Appelqvist, I.Influence of saliva on individual in-mouth aroma release from raw cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata F. rubra L.) and links to perception. Heliyon2018, 4, e01045 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e01045

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    Starkenmann, C.; Le Calve, B.; Niclass, Y.; Cayeux, I.; Beccucci, S.; Troccaz, M.Olfactory Perception of Cysteine-S-Conjugates from Fruits and Vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem.2008, 56, 9575– 9580, DOI: 10.1021/jf801873h

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    Olfactory perception of cysteine-S-conjugates from fruits and vegetables

    Starkenmann, Christian; Le Calve, Benedicte; Niclass, Yvan; Cayeux, Isabelle; Beccucci, Sabine; Troccaz, Myriam

    Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2008), 56 (20), 9575-9580CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

    Volatile sulfur compds. have a low odor threshold, and their presence at microgram per kg levels in fruits and vegetables influences odor quality. Sensory anal. demonstrates that naturally occurring, odorless cysteine-S-conjugates such as S-(R/S)-3-(1-hexanol)-L-cysteine in wine, S-(1-propyl)-L-cysteine in onion, and S-((R/S)-2-heptyl)-L-cysteine in bell pepper are transformed into volatile thiols in the mouth by microflora. The time delay in smelling these volatile thiols was 20-30 s, and persistent perception of their odor occurred for 3 min. The cysteine-S-conjugates are transformed in free thiol by anaerobes. The mouth acts as a reactor, adding another dimension to odor perception, and saliva modulates flavors by trapping free thiols.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhtFGntrzL&md5=47ba6877a1103ff32b79430170a86f4b
15. 15

    Marcinkowska, M.; Jeleń, H. H.Determination of the odor threshold concentrations and partition coefficients of isothiocyanates from Brassica vegetables in aqueous solution. LWT2020, 131, 109793 DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109793

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    15

    Determination of the odor threshold concentrations and partition coefficients of isothiocyanates from Brassica vegetables in aqueous solution

    LWT--Food Science and Technology (2020), 131 (), 109793CODEN: LSTWB3; ISSN:0023-6438. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    Isothiocyanates (ITCs) are products of the enzymic breakdown of glucosinolates and may cause pungent flavor notes in vegetables. Limited data on odor threshold concns. (OTCs) and odor quality descriptors of ITCs exist in literature. These parameters were detd. in aq. samples for 19 isothiocyanates found mainly in Brassica vegetables. Thresholds and odor quality descriptors were ascertained by panelists using flavor profile anal. (FPA). The odor threshold concns. of ITCs range from 0.005 x 10-3 (octyl ITC) to 0.2 x 10-3 (Et ITC) g/L and ITCs were mainly characterized by sulfur, garlic, and Brassica vegetable-like notes. Correlation coeffs. were between 0.946 (octyl ITC) and 0.996 (3-(methylthio)propyl ITC) and proved convincing results of OTCs using FPA. Partition coeffs. were detd. in water, artificial saliva and human saliva to provide an insight into behavior of ITCs in two-phase liq./air systems. Partition coeffs. (K) for human saliva are significantly different from other matrixes nevertheless the profile of ITCs K values in water and saliva buffer soln. were similar. In human saliva the highest K values were obsd. for octyl, hexyl and cyclohexyl ITCs, and the lowest for cyclopropyl, benzyl, allyl ITCs. Obtained data provide essential and previously unknown sensory properties for future flavor studies.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhtlWqu73M&md5=48ebf9589fe5a9281d888f238fa8326a
16. 16

    Wilby, F. V.Variation in Recognition Odor Threshold of a Panel. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.1969, 19, 96– 100, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1969.10466466

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    16

    Variation in recognition odor threshold of a panel

    Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association (1969), 19 (2), 96-100CODEN: JPCAAC; ISSN:0002-2470.

    The recognition odor thresholds of 18 S compds. were detd. using an untrained panel of 35 people. Results were given in terms of the no. of observers detecting the compd. at various concns. The variations of the odor thresholds for each observer for each compd. as well as for the group as a whole were also studied. Individual differences in sensitivity were observed for all 18 compds.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaF1MXktVWntbs%253D&md5=ae27adf1cd26a56f7648687b5cbdb31d
17. 17

    McRae, J. F.; Jaeger, S. R.; Bava, C. M.; Beresford, M. K.; Hunter, D.; Jia, Y.; Chheang, S. L.; Jin, D.; Peng, M.; Gamble, J. C.; Atkinson, K. R.; Axten, L. G.; Paisley, A. G.; Williams, L.; Tooman, L.; Pineau, B.; Rouse, S. A.; Newcomb, R. D.Identification of Regions Associated with Variation in Sensitivity to Food-Related Odors in the Human Genome. Curr. Biol.2013, 23, 1596– 1600, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.07.031

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    17

    Identification of regions associated with variation in sensitivity to food-related odors in the human genome

    McRae, Jeremy F.; Jaeger, Sara R.; Bava, Christina M.; Beresford, Michelle K.; Hunter, Denise; Jia, Yilin; Chheang, Sok Leang; Jin, David; Peng, Mei; Gamble, Joanna C.; Atkinson, Kelly R.; Axten, Lauren G.; Paisley, Amy G.; Williams, Liam; Tooman, Leah; Pineau, Benedicte; Rouse, Simon A.; Newcomb, Richard D.

    Current Biology (2013), 23 (16), 1596-1600CODEN: CUBLE2; ISSN:0960-9822. (Cell Press)

    Humans vary in their ability to smell numerous odors, including those assocd. with food. Odor sensitivity is heritable, with examples linking genetic variation for sensitivity to specific odors typically located near olfactory receptor (OR) genes. However, with thousands of aromas and few deorphaned ORs, there has been little progress toward linking variation at OR loci to odor sensitivity. We hypothesized that OR genes contain the variation that explains much of the differences in sensitivity for odors, paralleling the genetics of taste, which affect the flavor experience of foods. We employed a genome-wide assocn. approach for ten food-related odors and identified genetic assocns. to sensitivity for 2-heptanone (p = 5.1 × 10-8), isobutyraldehyde (p = 6.4 × 10-10), β-damascenone (p = 1.6 × 10-7), and β-ionone (p = 1.4 × 10-31). Each locus is located in/near distinct clusters of OR genes. These findings increase the no. of olfactory sensitivity loci to nine and demonstrate the importance of OR-assocd. variation in sensory acuity for food-related odors. Anal. of genotype frequencies across human populations implies that variation in sensitivity for these odors is widespread. Furthermore, each participant possessed one of many possible combinations of sensitivities for these odors, supporting the notion that everyone experiences their own unique 'flavor world'.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXht1Wrs7jM&md5=f402845f81a7da55dd8dd5e4c1bf7da4
18. 18

    Bradley, M. M.; Lang, P. J.Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry1994, 25, 49– 59, DOI: 10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9

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    18

    Measuring emotion: the Self-Assessment Manikin and the Semantic Differential

    Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry (1994), 25 (1), 49-59 ISSN:0005-7916.

    The Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) is a non-verbal pictorial assessment technique that directly measures the pleasure, arousal, and dominance associated with a person's affective reaction to a wide variety of stimuli. In this experiment, we compare reports of affective experience obtained using SAM, which requires only three simple judgments, to the Semantic Differential scale devised by Mehrabian and Russell (An approach to environmental psychology, 1974) which requires 18 different ratings. Subjective reports were measured to a series of pictures that varied in both affective valence and intensity. Correlations across the two rating methods were high both for reports of experienced pleasure and felt arousal. Differences obtained in the dominance dimension of the two instruments suggest that SAM may better track the personal response to an affective stimulus. SAM is an inexpensive, easy method for quickly assessing reports of affective response in many contexts.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADyaK2M%252FltFGrtw%253D%253D&md5=b600e5aa1a8f3a8217d0e0776375ec56
19. 19

    Bensafi, M.; Rinck, F.; Schaal, B.; Rouby, C.Verbal Cues Modulate Hedonic Perception of Odors in 5-Year-Old Children as well as in Adults. Chem. Senses2007, 32, 855– 862, DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjm055

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    19

    Verbal cues modulate hedonic perception of odors in 5-year-old children as well as in adults

    Bensafi Moustafa; Rinck Fanny; Schaal Benoist; Rouby Catherine

    Chemical senses (2007), 32 (9), 855-62 ISSN:0379-864X.

    The judgment of pleasantness/unpleasantness is the prominent reaction to the olfactory world. In human adults, the hedonic valence of odor perception is affected by various factors, among which is an individual's lexical knowledge about smells. The present study examined whether such top-down effects of lexical knowledge on hedonic judgment of olfactory input are similar in children (5-6 years) and adults (20-25 years). In both groups, the lexical knowledge was found to influence the perception of the least emotional (or most neutral) odors: the pleasantness of the smells of banana and mint was enhanced when participants were given the corresponding odor label before olfactory sensation. These results lend support to the notion that, during childhood, smells are not only encoded perceptually but that verbal encoding also steers contextual effects that may be prominent factors in the early memorization and categorization of odors.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2sjhs1Sitg%253D%253D&md5=ac2a0fc75f3c91e76974edfd75e94890
20. 20

    Peryam, D. R.; Pilgrim, F. J.Hedonic scale method of measuring food preferences. Food Technol.1957, 11, 9– 14

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21. 21

    Yuan, G.-f.; Sun, B.; Yuan, J.; Wang, Q.-m.Effects of different cooking methods on health-promoting compounds of broccoli. J. Zhejiang Univ., Sci., B2009, 10, 580– 588, DOI: 10.1631/jzus.B0920051

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    21

    Effects of different cooking methods on health-promoting compounds of broccoli

    Journal of Zhejiang University. Science. B (2009), 10 (8), 580-8 ISSN:.

    The effects of five domestic cooking methods, including steaming, microwaving, boiling, stir-frying, and stir-frying followed by boiling (stir-frying/boiling), on the nutrients and health-promoting compounds of broccoli were investigated. The results show that all cooking treatments, except steaming, caused significant losses of chlorophyll and vitamin C and significant decreases of total soluble proteins and soluble sugars. Total aliphatic and indole glucosinolates were significantly modified by all cooking treatments but not by steaming. In general, the steaming led to the lowest loss of total glucosinolates, while stir-frying and stir-frying/boiling presented the highest loss. Stir-frying and stir-frying/boiling, the two most popular methods for most homemade dishes in China, cause great losses of chlorophyll, soluble protein, soluble sugar, vitamin C, and glucosinolates, but the steaming method appears the best in retention of the nutrients in cooking broccoli.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1MrjtVarsg%253D%253D&md5=222210af5c76aa82570c82e01c09dd9d
22. 22

    Hanschen, F. S.; Klopsch, R.; Oliviero, T.; Schreiner, M.; Verkerk, R.; Dekker, M.Optimizing isothiocyanate formation during enzymatic glucosinolate breakdown by adjusting pH value, temperature and dilution in Brassica vegetables and Arabidopsis thaliana. Sci. Rep.2017, 7, 40807 DOI: 10.1038/srep40807

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    22

    Optimizing isothiocyanate formation during enzymatic glucosinolate breakdown by adjusting pH value, temperature and dilution in Brassica vegetables and Arabidopsis thaliana

    Hanschen, Franziska S.; Klopsch, Rebecca; Oliviero, Teresa; Schreiner, Monika; Verkerk, Ruud; Dekker, Matthijs

    Scientific Reports (2017), 7 (), 40807CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)

    Consumption of glucosinolate-rich Brassicales vegetables is assocd. with a decreased risk of cancer with enzymic hydrolysis of glucosinolates playing a key role. However, formation of health-promoting isothiocyanates is inhibited by the epithiospecifier protein in favor of nitriles and epithionitriles. Domestic processing conditions, such as changes in pH value, temp. or diln., might also affect isothiocyanate formation. Therefore, the influences of these three factors were evaluated in accessions of Brassica rapa, Brassica oleracea, and Arabidopsis thaliana. Math. modeling was performed to det. optimal isothiocyanate formation conditions and to obtain knowledge on the kinetics of the reactions. At 22 °C and endogenous plant pH, nearly all investigated plants formed nitriles and epithionitriles instead of health-promoting isothiocyanates. Response surface models, however, clearly demonstrated that upon change in pH to domestic acidic (pH 4) or basic pH values (pH 8), isothiocyanate formation considerably increases. While temp. also affects this process, the pH value has the greatest impact. Further, a kinetic model showed that isothiocyanate formation strongly increases due to diln. Finally, the results show that isothiocyanate intake can be strongly increased by optimizing the conditions of prepn. of Brassicales vegetables.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXht1Ohu70%253D&md5=be1b74a5a009e74bc77f0001559c3814
23. 23

    Mendoza-Enano, M. L.; Stanley, R.; Frank, D.Linking consumer sensory acceptability to volatile composition for improved shelf-life: A case study of fresh-cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Postharvest Biol. Technol.2019, 154, 137– 147, DOI: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2019.03.018

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    23

    Linking consumer sensory acceptability to volatile composition for improved shelf-life: A case study of fresh-cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)

    Postharvest Biology and Technology (2019), 154 (), 137-147CODEN: PBTEED; ISSN:0925-5214. (Elsevier B.V.)

    Shelf-life improvement of fresh-cut produce such as watermelon can be guided by optimizing flavor and consumer liking, while ensuring microbial quality. In this study, the impacts of postharvest processing and packaging technologies on consumer acceptability and flavor profiles of fresh-cut watermelon were evaluated. The treatments included post-cut sanitation spray (with and without), modification of the headspace gas compn. (ambient and modified atm.), lidding film permeability (perforated and non-perforated), storage temp. (3 and 7 °C) and storage period (1, 6 and 8 d). Odor-active compds. of both fresh and stored watermelon were identified by olfactometry. Changes in key odor-impact volatile compds. were measured using solid phase microextn.-gas chromatog.-mass spectrometry and proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry. Changes in the volatile compn. of samples stored at 3 °C were correlated to the consumer sensory scores for color, fresh appearance, odor, firmness, flavor, and taste. Fresh-cut watermelon packed in ambient air, sealed with non-perforated lidding film, and stored at 3 °C for both 6 and 8 d received the highest flavor and overall liking scores compared to modified atm. (5%O2 and 10%CO2). Further improvement of flavor freshness and overall acceptability was achieved when the post-cut sanitation step was removed. Results indicated that the shelf-life, as judged by overall perceived quality, can be increased from 6 to 8 d by manipulation of processing and storage conditions without compromising flavor and consumer acceptance. The study confirmed the usefulness of linking consumer acceptability to volatile measurement as a research tool to optimize product improvement.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXpsVags7k%253D&md5=ed53810fbdd5e2a0a051b15dba0dc92a
24. 24

    Frank, D.; Raeside, M.; Behrendt, R.; Krishnamurthy, R.; Piyasiri, U.; Rose, G.; Watkins, P.; Warner, R.An integrated sensory, consumer and olfactometry study evaluating the effects of rearing system and diet on flavour characteristics of Australian lamb. Anim. Prod. Sci.2017, 57, 347– 362, DOI: 10.1071/AN15006

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25. 25

    Marques Pinheiro, A. C.; Nunes, C. A.; Vietoris, V.Sensomaker: a tool for sensorial characterization of food products. Cienc. Agrotecnol.2013, 37, 199– 201, DOI: 10.1590/S1413-70542013000300001

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26. 26

    Frank, D.; Appelqvist, I.; Piyasiri, U.; Delahunty, C.In Vitro Measurement of Volatile Release in Model Lipid Emulsions Using Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem.2012, 60, 2264– 2273, DOI: 10.1021/jf204120h

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    26

    In vitro measurement of volatile release in model lipid emulsions using proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry

    Frank, Damian; Appelqvist, Ingrid; Piyasiri, Udayasika; Delahunty, Conor

    Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2012), 60 (9), 2264-2273CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

    The presence of fat in food plays an important role in the way aroma is released during consumption and in the creation of the overall sensory impression. Fat acts as a reservoir for lipophilic volatile compds. and modulates the timing and delivery of aroma compds. in a unique manner. Despite considerable research, reproducible in vitro methods for measuring the effect of fat on volatile release are lacking. An open in vitro cell was used to simulate the open human naso-oropharyngeal system and was interfaced with a proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS) to examine some of the fundamental effects of fat on dynamic volatile release in liq. fat emulsions. Lipid emulsions with various fat contents (0-20%) and droplet sizes (0.25, 0.5, and 5.0μM) were spiked with flavor volatiles representing a range of lipophilicity (Ko/w = 1-1380). Preloaded syringes of spiked emulsion were injected into the cell, and temporal changes in release were measured under dynamic conditions. Significant differences in release curves were measured according to the lipid content of emulsions, the vapor pressure, and Ko/w values of the volatile compds. With increasing addn. of fat, the crit. volatile release parameters, max. concn. (Imax), time to max. concn. (Tmax), and the integrated area under the concn. curve (AUC), were affected. The in vitro curves were reproducible and in agreement with theory and correlated with the preswallow phase of in vivo release data. An exponential model was used to calc. changes in mass transfer rates with increased fat addn.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhslGitLg%253D&md5=ed23f02e237edf2e297e11a1d6582454
27. 27

    van Ruth, S. M.; Grossmann, I.; Geary, M.; Delahunty, C. M.Interactions between Artificial Saliva and 20 Aroma Compounds in Water and Oil Model Systems. J. Agric. Food Chem.2001, 49, 2409– 2413, DOI: 10.1021/jf001510f

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    27

    Interactions between Artificial Saliva and 20 Aroma Compounds in Water and Oil Model Systems

    van Ruth, Saskia M.; Grossmann, Isabelle; Geary, Mike; Delahunty, Conor M.

    Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2001), 49 (5), 2409-2413CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

    The interactions between saliva components and 20 aroma compds. in water and oil model systems were systematically evaluated as a function of saliva compn. and saliva/model system ratio. Air/liq. partition coeffs. of di-Me sulfide, 1-propanol, diacetyl, 2-butanone, Et acetate, 1-butanol, 2-pentanol, Pr acetate, 3-methyl-1-butanol, Et butyrate, hexanal, Bu acetate, 1-hexanol, 2-heptanone, heptanal, α-pinene, 2-octanone, octanal, 2-nonanol, and 2-decanone were detd. by static headspace gas chromatog. Chain length of compds. within the homologous series detd. the extent of interactions with the model system or saliva. Salts in the artificial saliva hardly interacted with aroma compds. On the other hand, saliva proteins lowered retention of highly volatile compds. and increased retention of less volatile, hydrophobic compds. Significant differences in volatility of compds. when artificial saliva or water was added indicated that saliva could not be sufficiently replaced by water. The model system/saliva ratio influenced air/liq. partitioning of the aroma compds. significantly for both model systems. Although saliva compn. affected volatility of the aroma compds., the saliva/model system ratio was of much greater influence.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXjtVCqsbw%253D&md5=280f7e3d5033ef2e04653dd39093b0ce
28. 28

    Mendoza-Enano, M. L.; Stanley, R.; Frank, D.Dataset of volatile compounds in fresh and stored cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) under varying processing and packaging conditions. Data Brief2019, 104299 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2019.104299

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    28

    Dataset of volatile compounds in fresh and stored cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) under varying processing and packaging conditions

    Mendoza-Enano Michelle Louise; Stanley Roger; Mendoza-Enano Michelle Louise; Frank Damian; Stanley Roger

    Headspace volatile data for fresh and stored cut watermelon measured by solid phase microextraction gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (SPME GC-MS) and also proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) are reported [1]. Eight different processing and packaging storage treatments were applied to fresh and stored cut watermelon including varying the processing treatments (with vs. without post-cut sanitation spray), headspace gas composition (ambient vs. modified atmosphere), lidding film permeability (perforated vs. non-perforated), storage temperature (3 and 7 °C) for up to 8 days. A total of 41 volatile compounds were characterized by SPME GC-MS in watermelon headspace on the basis of their electron impact (EI) mass spectra. Reference chemical standards and matching linear retention indices (LRIs) were used to confirm the identity of 32 volatiles (Supplementary Table 1). PTR-MS fragmentation data for 32 key odor-active reference volatiles identified in watermelon are reported (Supplementary Table 2). PTR-MS fragment data for fresh and stored cut watermelon are provided (Supplementary Table 3).

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3Mjjt1Wisw%253D%253D&md5=debf9964dc9e9d2927a2b0e4d2619369
29. 29

    Wang, G. C.; Farnham, M.; Jeffery, E. H.Impact of Thermal Processing on Sulforaphane Yield from Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. ssp. italica). J. Agric. Food Chem.2012, 60, 6743– 6748, DOI: 10.1021/jf2050284

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    29

    Impact of Thermal Processing on Sulforaphane Yield from Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. ssp. italica)

    Wang, Grace C.; Farnham, Mark; Jeffery, Elizabeth H.

    Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2012), 60 (27), 6743-6748CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

    In broccoli, sulforaphane forms when the glucosinolate glucoraphanin is hydrolyzed by the endogenous plant thiohydrolase myrosinase. A myrosinase cofactor directs hydrolysis away from the formation of bioactive sulforaphane and toward an inactive product, sulforaphane nitrile. The cofactor is more heat sensitive than myrosinase, presenting an opportunity to preferentially direct hydrolysis toward sulforaphane formation through regulation of thermal processing. Four broccoli cultivars were microwave heated, boiled, or steamed for various lengths of time. Prodn. of nitrile during hydrolysis of unheated broccoli varied among cultivars from 91 to 52% of hydrolysis products (Pinnacle > Marathon > Patriot > Brigadier). Boiling and microwave heating caused an initial loss of nitrile, with a concomitant increase in sulforaphane, followed by loss of sulforaphane, all within 1 min. In contrast, steaming enhanced sulforaphane yield between 1.0 and 3.0 min in all but Brigadier. These data are proof of concept that steaming for 1.0-3.0 min provides less nitrile and more sulforaphane yield from a broccoli meal.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XkvV2jsb8%253D&md5=fbe97747d1d60ed3dee31f610a3961ef
30. 30

    Spadone, J.-C.; Matthey-Doret, W.; Blank, I.Formation of Methyl (Methylthio)methyl Disulfide in Broccoli (Brassica oleracea (L.) var. italica). In Developments in Food Science; Bredie, W. L. P.; Petersen, M. A., Eds.; Elsevier, 2006; Vol. 43, pp 309– 314.

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31. 31

    Dekeirsschieter, J.; Verheggen, F. J.; Gohy, M.; Hubrecht, F.; Bourguignon, L.; Lognay, G.; Haubruge, E.Cadaveric volatile organic compounds released by decaying pig carcasses (Sus domesticus L.) in different biotopes. Forensic Sci. Int.2009, 189, 46– 53, DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.03.034

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    31

    Cadaveric volatile organic compounds released by decaying pig carcasses (Sus domesticus L.) in different biotopes

    Dekeirsschieter, J.; Verheggen, F. J.; Gohy, M.; Hubrecht, F.; Bourguignon, L.; Lognay, G.; Haubruge, E.

    Forensic Science International (2009), 189 (1-3), 46-53CODEN: FSINDR; ISSN:0379-0738. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    Forensic entomol. uses pig carcasses to surrogate human decompn. and to investigate the entomofaunal colonization. Insects communicate with their environment through the use of chem. mediators, which in the case of necrophagous insects, may consist in the cadaveric volatile org. compds. (VOCs) released by the corpse under decompn. Previous studies have focused on cadaveric VOCs released from human corpses. Nevertheless, studies on human corpses are restricted for many reasons, including ethics. Forensic entomologists use pig as animal model but very few information are available about the decompositional VOCs released by a decaying pig carcass. We here tested a passive sampling technique, the Radiello diffusive sampler, to monitor the cadaveric VOCs released by decompg. pig carcasses in three biotopes (crop field, forest, urban site). A total of 104 chem. compds., exclusively produced by the decompositional process, were identified by thermal desorption interfaced with gas chromatog. and mass spectrometry (TDS-GC-MS). Ninety, 85 and 57 cadaveric VOCs were identified on pig carcasses laying on the agricultural site, the forest biotope and in the urban site, resp. The main cadaveric VOCs are acids, cyclic hydrocarbons, oxygenated compds., sulfur and nitrogen compds. A better knowledge of the smell of death and their volatile constituents may have many applications in forensic sciences.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXnsV2qtbc%253D&md5=e3cdb5aa2fbae858b2c5c23c95b39b3b
32. 32

    Verheggen, F.; Perrault, K. A.; Megido, R. C.; Dubois, L. M.; Francis, F.; Haubruge, E.; Forbes, S. L.; Focant, J.-F.; Stefanuto, P.-H.The Odor of Death: An Overview of Current Knowledge on Characterization and Applications. BioScience2017, 67, 600– 613, DOI: 10.1093/biosci/bix046

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33. 33

    Tian, S.; Liu, X.; Lei, P.; Zhang, X.; Shan, Y.Microbiota: a mediator to transform glucosinolate precursors in cruciferous vegetables to the active isothiocyanates. J. Sci. Food Agric.2018, 98, 1255– 1260, DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8654

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    33

    Microbiota: a mediator to transform glucosinolate precursors in cruciferous vegetables to the active isothiocyanates

    Tian, Sicong; Liu, Xiaodong; Lei, Peng; Zhang, Xiaohong; Shan, Yujuan

    Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture (2018), 98 (4), 1255-1260CODEN: JSFAAE; ISSN:0022-5142. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

    Isothiocyanates (ITCs), such as sulforaphane (SFN), exhibit powerful biol. functions in fighting cancers, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. They normally exist as glucosinolates (GLSs) in cruciferous vegetables, which are not themselves bioactive until they are degraded by myrosinase to form ITCs. Myrosinase coexists in the same plants but is normally kept apart from GLSs in different app. A key point is that myrosinase is temp. sensitive and can be inactivated upon exposure to temps. over 60 °, as typically occurs during cooking. However, studies using animal models and population trials have suggested that human gut bacteria might act like an 'organ' in that they can secrete their own myrosinase. In this review, the hydrolysis of GLS by myrosinase is discussed, with an important focus on the gut microflora and their myrosinase-producing roles. © 2017 Society of Chem. Industry.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhs1WqsrvN&md5=f2688a78a78c1c73029ba117ac0f3e08
34. 34

    Dinu, V.; Gillis, R. B.; MacCalman, T.; Lim, M.; Adams, G. G.; Harding, S. E.; Fisk, I. D.Submaxillary Mucin: its Effect on Aroma Release from Acidic Drinks and New Insight into the Effect of Aroma Compounds on its Macromolecular Integrity. Food Biophys.2019, 14, 278– 286, DOI: 10.1007/s11483-019-09574-2

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    34

    Submaxillary Mucin: its Effect on Aroma Release from Acidic Drinks and New Insight into the Effect of Aroma Compounds on its Macromolecular Integrity

    Dinu Vlad; MacCalman Thomas; Harding Stephen E; Dinu Vlad; Lim Mui; Fisk Ian D; Gillis Richard B; Adams Gary G; Harding Stephen E

    Food biophysics (2019), 14 (3), 278-286 ISSN:1557-1858.

    Submaxillary mucin is a major component that defines the makeup and functionality of saliva. Understanding its structure and function during food intake is key to designing appropriate strategies for enhancing the delivery of flavour. In the present study, the hydrodynamic integrity of bovine submaxillary mucin was characterised under physiological and acidic conditions and it was shown to have a broad molecular weight distribution with species ranging from 100 kDa to over 2000 kDa, and a random coil type of conformation. A decrease in the pH of mucin appeared to result in aggregation and a broader molecular weight distribution, which was shown to correlate with a release of flavour compounds. Our study also provides indications that p-cresol may have an effect on the macromolecular integrity of mucin.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3MvntVSmsg%253D%253D&md5=4afc57223946bce6f7d43dbac90b118e
35. 35

    Acquier, A. B.; Pita, A. K. D. C.; Busch, L.; Sánchez, G. A.Comparison of salivary levels of mucin and amylase and their relation with clinical parameters obtained from patients with aggressive and chronic periodontal disease. J. Appl. Oral Sci.2015, 23, 288– 294, DOI: 10.1590/1678-775720140458

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    35

    Comparison of salivary levels of mucin and amylase and their relation with clinical parameters obtained from patients with aggressive and chronic periodontal disease

    Acquier, Andrea Beatriz; De Couto Pita, Alejandra Karina; Busch, Lucila; Sanchez, Gabriel Antonio

    Journal of Applied Oral Science (2015), 23 (3), 288-294CODEN: JAOSBM; ISSN:1678-7765. (Faculdade de Odontologica de Bauru)

    Objective: Salivary mucin and amylase levels are increased in patients with chronic periodontitis (CP). Due to the fact that aggressive periodontitis (AgP) not only differs from chronic periodontitis in terms of its clin. manifestation, the aim of this study was to compare salivary mucin and amylase levels and their relation to the clin. parameters of patients with aggressive periodontitis with that of patients with chronic periodontitis. Material and Methods: Eighty subjects were divided into two groups: 20 patients with AgP and their 20 matched controls and 20 patients with CP and their 20 matched controls, based on clin. attachment loss (CAL), probing pocket depth (PPD) and bleeding on probing (BOP). Whole unstimulated saliva was obtained and mucin, amylase and protein were detd. by colorimetric methods. Pearson's correlation anal. was used to det. the relationship between salivary mucin, amylase and protein levels and the clin. parameters. Results: Salivary mucin, amylase and protein levels were increased in patients with AgP and CP but there were no differences between them or between control groups. Pearson's correlation anal., detd. in the entire subjects studied, showed a pos. and significant correlation of mucin, amylase and proteins with CAL and PPD and a neg. correlation with the flow rate. When Pearson's correlation anal. was carried out in each group sep., Fisher's z transformation showed no significant difference between both groups. Conclusion: Comparison of the salivary levels of mucin, amylase and protein and their relationship with clin. parameters of AgP patients with that of CP patients revealed no differences between both groups.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXlsFSit7s%253D&md5=06100843107db6282d07d5337c84a77a
36. 36

    Hemingway, K. M.; Alston, M. J.; Chappell, C. G.; Taylor, A. J.Carbohydrate-flavour conjugates in wine. Carbohydr. Polym.1999, 38, 283– 286, DOI: 10.1016/S0144-8617(98)00103-9

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    Starkenmann, C.; Troccaz, M.; Howell, K.The role of cysteine and cysteine-S conjugates as odour precursors in the flavour and fragrance industry. Flavour Fragrance J.2008, 23, 369– 381, DOI: 10.1002/ffj.1907

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    37

    The role of cysteine and cysteine-S conjugates as odour precursors in the flavour and fragrance industry

    Starkenmann, Christian; Troccaz, Myriam; Howell, Kate

    Flavour and Fragrance Journal (2008), 23 (6), 369-381CODEN: FFJOED; ISSN:0882-5734. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

    A review. Volatile sulfur compds. are important odorants in the flavor and fragrance industries. Recent developments in the field have reinvigorated sulfur compd. research, particularly with regard to the precursor compds. of volatile thiols. The present review concs. on the role of cysteine and cysteine-S conjugates as precursor compds. for a variety of aromas and examines the chem. and enzymic pathways of degrdn. and biotransformation. Cysteine is an important source of sulfur in flavor chem. and may be degraded into hydrogen sulfide, which can further participate in other reactions. Direct reactions of cysteine and the pathways particular to various flavors and fragrances are discussed, with an emphasis on the precursor compds. cysteine-S conjugates. The importance of cysteine precursors in plants, including onion, wine, passion fruit, bitter orange, asparagus and bell pepper and the formation of natural scents in cats and humans are discussed.

    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXivFGhtA%253D%253D&md5=fda22e958b3e8167328a95fca0d38ae3
38. 38

    Poelman, A. A. M.; Delahunty, C. M.; de Graaf, C.Vegetable preparation practices for 5–6 years old Australian children as reported by their parents; relationships with liking and consumption. Food Qual. Preference2015, 42, 20– 26, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.01.005

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39. 39

    Sundström, K.; Mishra, P. P.; Pyysalo, M. J.; Lehtimäki, T.; Karhunen, P. J.; Pessi, T.Similarity of salivary microbiome in parents and adult children. PeerJ2020, 8, e8799 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8799

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• ARTICLE SECTIONS

  This article references 39 other publications.

  1. 1

     Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Australia’s Health 2020: Data Insights; AIHW: Canberra, 2020.

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     Zabaras, D.; Roohani, M.; Krishnamurthy, R.; Cochet, M.; Delahunty, C. M.Characterisation of taste-active extracts from raw Brassica oleracea vegetables. Food Funct.2013, 4, 592– 601, DOI: 10.1039/c2fo30192j

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     Characterisation of taste-active extracts from raw Brassica oleracea vegetables

     Zabaras, Dimitrios; Roohani, Mahshid; Krishnamurthy, Raju; Cochet, Maeva; Delahunty, Conor M.

     Food & Function (2013), 4 (4), 592-601CODEN: FFOUAI; ISSN:2042-6496. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

     Chem. and sensory characterization of whole and fractionated myrosinase-free exts. from selected Australian-grown, raw Brassica vegetables (broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and red cabbage) was carried out to det. the contribution of key phytochems. (i.e. glucosinolates, free sugars, phenolics) to the taste profiles of these vegetables. Glucosinolate (GS) and phenolic profiles were detd. by liq. chromatog. coupled with photodiode array detection and mass spectrometry. Ten glucosinolates (GS) were quantified across the vegetables investigated. Brussels sprouts (186.3 μg g-1 FW) followed by broccoli (164.1 μg g-1 FW) were found to contain the most GS. The phenolic profiles of all samples were dominated by hydroxycinnamic acid derivs. As expected, red cabbage was the only vegetable with a significant anthocyanin signal (574.0 μg g-1 FW). Red cabbage (26.7 mg g-1 FW) and cauliflower (18.7 mg g-1 FW) were found to contain a higher concn. of free sugars than Brussels sprouts (12.6 mg g-1 FW) and broccoli (10.2 mg g-1 FW). Descriptive sensory anal. of the whole exts. found sweetness (cauliflower and red cabbage sweeter than broccoli and Brussels sprouts) and bitterness (Brussels sprouts more bitter than others) as the most discriminating attributes. A hydrophilic fraction with sweetness, umami and saltiness as the main attributes was the most taste active fraction across all Brassica whole exts. Sub-fractionation showed that this fraction was also bitter but the presence of sugars counteracted bitterness. Several components within each ext. were found to contribute to the bitterness of whole Brassica exts. The total and individual GS content alone could not explain the perceived bitterness of these exts. Phenolics and/or other components are likely to be contributing to the bitterness assocd. with these vegetables.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXksFKms7o%253D&md5=bacb08e860c34993054b6b984370434d
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     Poelman, A. A. M.; Delahunty, C. M.; de Graaf, C.Vegetables and other core food groups: A comparison of key flavour and texture properties. Food Qual. Preference2017, 56, 1– 7, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.09.004

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     Drewnowski, A.; Gomez-Carneros, C.Bitter taste, phytonutrients, and the consumer: a review. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.2000, 72, 1424– 1435, DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/72.6.1424

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     Bitter taste, phytonutrients, and the consumer: a review

     American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000), 72 (6), 1424-1435CODEN: AJCNAC; ISSN:0002-9165. (American Society for Clinical Nutrition)

     A review with 137 refs. Dietary phytonutrients found in vegetables and fruit appear to lower the risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Studies on the mechanisms of chemoprotection have focused on the biol. activity of plant-based phenols and polyphenols, flavonoids, isoflavones, terpenes, and glucosinolates. Enhancing the phytonutrient content of plant foods through selective breeding or genetic improvement is a potent dietary option for disease prevention. However, most, if not all, of these bioactive compds. are bitter, acrid, or astringent and therefore aversive to the consumer. Some have long been viewed as plant-based toxins. As a result, the food industry routinely removes these compds. from plant foods through selective breeding and a variety of debittering processes. This poses a dilemma for the designers of functional foods because increasing the content of bitter phytonutrients for health may be wholly incompatible with consumer acceptance. Studies on phytonutrients and health ought to take sensory factors and food preferences into account.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3cXosl2msbY%253D&md5=61362df4e368de0a600ce06ad79a040d
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     Hanschen, F. S.; Schreiner, M.Isothiocyanates, Nitriles, and Epithionitriles from Glucosinolates Are Affected by Genotype and Developmental Stage in Brassica oleracea Varieties. Front. Plant Sci.2017, 8, 1095 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01095

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     5

     Isothiocyanates, Nitriles, and Epithionitriles from Glucosinolates Are Affected by Genotype and Developmental Stage in Brassica oleracea Varieties

     Frontiers in plant science (2017), 8 (), 1095 ISSN:1664-462X.

     Vegetables of the Brassica oleracea group, such as broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage, play an important role for glucosinolate consumption in the human diet. Upon maceration of the vegetable tissue, glucosinolates are degraded enzymatically to form volatile isothiocyanates, nitriles, and epithionitriles. However, only the uptake of isothiocyanates is linked to the cancer-preventive effects. Thus, it is of great interest to evaluate especially the isothiocyanate formation. Here, we studied the formation of glucosinolates and their respective hydrolysis products in sprouts and fully developed vegetable heads of different genotypes of the five B. oleracea varieties: broccoli, cauliflower as well as white, red, and savoy cabbages. Further, the effect of ontogeny (developmental stages) during the head development on the formation of glucosinolates and their respective hydrolysis products was evaluated at three different developmental stages (mini, fully developed, and over-mature head). Broccoli and red cabbage were mainly rich in 4-(methylsulfinyl)butyl glucosinolate (glucoraphanin), whereas cauliflower, savoy cabbage and white cabbage contained mainly 2-propenyl (sinigrin) and 3-(methylsulfinyl)propyl glucosinolate (glucoiberin). Upon hydrolysis, epithionitriles or nitriles were often observed to be the main hydrolysis products, with 1-cyano-2,3-epithiopropane being most abundant with up to 5.7 μmol/g fresh weight in white cabbage sprouts. Notably, sprouts often contained more than 10 times more glucosinolates or their hydrolysis products compared to fully developed vegetables. Moreover, during head development, both glucosinolate concentrations as well as hydrolysis product concentrations changed and mini heads contained the highest isothiocyanate concentrations. Thus, from a cancer-preventive point of view, consumption of mini heads of the B. oleracea varieties is recommended.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1cjlvVKgsA%253D%253D&md5=1b849198b8424cb2e7d9c10308d1fc0f
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     Bell, K. I.; Tepper, B. J.Short-term vegetable intake by young children classified by 6- n-propylthoiuracil bitter-taste phenotype. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.2006, 84, 245– 251, DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/84.1.245

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     6

     Short-term vegetable intake by young children classified by 6-n-propylthoiuracil bitter-taste phenotype

     American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2006), 84 (1), 245-251CODEN: AJCNAC; ISSN:0002-9165. (American Society for Nutrition)

     Background: Genetic variation in sensitivity to the bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) is thought to play a role in the acceptance and rejection of bitter-tasting vegetables by young children. Objectives: We investigated the relation between the PROP bitter-taste phenotype and acceptance and consumption of vegetables by young children. We hypothesized that nontasters of PROP would give higher hedonic ratings to bitter-tasting vegetables and would consume more bitter vegetables than would tasters of PROP. Design: Sixty-five preschool children were identified as tasters (n = 24) or nontasters (n = 41) of PROP. Children were allowed to select from among 5 types of vegetables (black olives, cucumbers, carrots, red pepper, and raw broccoli) to consume in a free-choice intake test and to give hedonic ratings to the vegetables. Results: The nontaster children consumed more vegetables than did the taster children during the free-choice test (0.91 servings compared with 0.48 servings; P < 0.05). This difference reflected the higher consumption of the more bitter-tasting vegetables (olives, cucumber, and broccoli) by the nontaster children (P < 0.05). Only 8% of the nontaster children consumed no vegetables in the free-choice test compared with 32% of taster children (P < 0.03). The nontaster children also liked raw broccoli more than did the taster children in the hedonic test (P < 0.05). Conclusions: The nontaster children consumed more vegetables, particularly the vegetables that were bitter tasting, than did the taster children during a free-choice intake test. These novel findings suggest that the PROP bitter-taste phenotype contributes to the development of vegetable acceptance and consumption patterns during early childhood.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28XntVeru7k%253D&md5=27f054bcba5f1417e541eb1ac14167d9
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     Mennella, J. A.Ontogeny of taste preferences: basic biology and implications for health. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.2014, 99, 704S– 711S, DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.113.067694

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     Ontogeny of taste preferences: basic biology and implications for health

     American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2014), 99 (3(S)), 704S-711SCODEN: AJCNAC; ISSN:0002-9165. (American Society for Nutrition)

     A review. Health initiatives address childhood obesity in part by encouraging good nutrition early in life. This review highlights the science that shows that children naturally prefer higher levels of sweet and salty tastes and reject lower levels of bitter tastes than do adults. Thus, their basic biol. does not predispose them to favor the recommended low-sugar, low-sodium, vegetable-rich diets and makes them esp. vulnerable to our current food environment of foods high in salt and refined sugars. The good news is that sensory experiences, beginning early in life, can shape preferences. Mothers who consume diets rich in healthy foods can get children off to a good start because flavors are transmitted from the maternal diet to amniotic fluid and mother's milk, and breastfed infants are more accepting of these flavors. In contrast, infants fed formula learn to prefer its unique flavor profile and may have more difficulty initially accepting flavors not found in formula, such as those of fruit and vegetables. Regardless of early feeding mode, infants can learn through repeated exposure and dietary variety if caregivers focus on the child's willingness to consume a food and not just the facial expressions made during feeding. In addn., providing complementary foods low in salt and sugars may help protect the developing child from excess intake later in life. Early-life experiences with healthy tastes and flavors may go a long way toward promoting healthy eating, which could have a significant impact in addressing the many chronic illnesses assocd. with poor food choice.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXjs1ynsLw%253D&md5=f38344e5aed66bff5c9b890eece3c633
  8. 8

     Mennella, J. A.; Bobowski, N. K.; Reed, D. R.The development of sweet taste: From biology to hedonics. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord.2016, 17, 171– 178, DOI: 10.1007/s11154-016-9360-5

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     The development of sweet taste: From biology to hedonics

     Mennella Julie A; Bobowski Nuala K; Reed Danielle R

     Reviews in endocrine & metabolic disorders (2016), 17 (2), 171-8 ISSN:.

     From the age of 2 years, an American child is more likely to consume a sugar-sweetened product than a fruit or vegetable on any given day-a troubling statistic, given that food preferences are established early in childhood, as well as the strong association between this dietary pattern and increased risk of developing a number of chronic diseases. Here, we review the ontogeny and biopsychology of sweet taste, highlighting how a biological drive to prefer sweetness at high concentrations during childhood, which would have conferred an advantage in environments of scarcity, now predisposes children to overconsume all that is sweet in a modern food system replete with added sugars. We review the power of sweet taste to blunt expressions of pain and mask bad tastes in foods as well as factors that predispose some to consume high-sugar diets, including experiential learning and taste preferences driven in part by genetics. Understanding children's unique vulnerability to our current food environment, rich in both nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners, is highlighted as a priority for future research to develop evidence-based strategies to help establish healthy dietary behaviors early in life.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2s%252FgslWrtA%253D%253D&md5=c258dada98ccdcb7b3c589f1deb0f0c7
  9. 9

     Marks, H. S.; Hilson, J. A.; Leichtweis, H. C.; Stoewsand, G. S.S-Methylcysteine sulfoxide in Brassica vegetables and formation of methyl methanethiosulfinate from Brussels sprouts. J. Agric. Food Chem.1992, 40, 2098– 2101, DOI: 10.1021/jf00023a012

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     9

     S-Methylcysteine sulfoxide in Brassica vegetables and formation of methyl methanethiosulfinate from Brussels sprouts

     Marks, Howard S.; Hilson, Julie A.; Leichtweis, Harry C.; Stoewsand, Gilbert S.

     Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (1992), 40 (11), 2098-101CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561.

     The naturally occurring compd. S-methylcysteine sulfoxide (SMCSO) was detd. in broccoflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and cauliflower. This compd. has a role in the aroma and flavor of these vegetables and appears to be involved with the inhibition of exptl. carcinogenesis. Brussels sprouts had the highest concn. of SMCSO, and were used to identify the cystine lyase-mediated enzymic conversion products, including Me methanethiosulfinate (MMTSO). MMTSO, di-Me trisulfide, and pyruvate can be formed facilely in a simplified enzymic model system, and generation of MMTSO was confirmed in a water ext. of macerated Brussels sprouts. Formation of MMTSO was strongly dependent on the pH of the vegetable juice. After 24 h, only traces of MMTSO were obsd. at the developed acidic pH of Brussels sprouts, although considerable amts. were formed at an adjusted basic pH. This is the first evidence that MMTSO is enzymically derived from SMCSO under natural conditions.

     https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK38XmtFWiu70%253D&md5=4c5dec2c561b5be0e7347ca944bf4f10
  10. 10

      Kiddle, G. A.; Bennett, R. N.; Hick, A. J.; Wallsgrove, R. M.C-S lyase activities in leaves of crucifers and non-crucifers, and the characterization of three classes of C-S lyase activities from oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Plant, Cell Environ.1999, 22, 433– 445, DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3040.1999.00416.x

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      10

      C-S lyase activities in leaves of crucifers and non-crucifers, and the characterization of three classes of C-S lyase activities from oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.)

      Kiddle, G. A.; Bennett, R. N.; Hick, A. J.; Wallsgrove, R. M.

      Plant, Cell and Environment (1999), 22 (5), 433-445CODEN: PLCEDV; ISSN:0140-7791. (Blackwell Science Ltd.)

      C-S lyases in plants are involved in primary and secondary metab., and in glucosinolate-contg. species may be involved in glucosinolate biosynthesis. Exts. from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) leaves were assayed for several C-S lyase activities. Four activities [using L-cystine, L-cystathionine, S-(2-benzothiazolyl)-L-Cys (SBC) and S-benzyl-L-Cys] were investigated in detail. All are developmentally regulated (highest in youngest leaves), and differentially inhibited by iodoacetamide, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) and EDTA. Thermal stabilities and pH optima were also distinct. Competitive inhibition of the SBC lyase activity with a variety of sulfur-contg. compds. indicated that cystine lyase contributes to SBC degrdn., and this enzyme may cleave a wide range of compds., both aliph. and arom., but other 'SBC lyases' were also present. Putative arom. glucosinolate intermediates were cleaved by the rape enzymes. Developmental and biochem. studies indicate that at least three classes of C-S lyase activity are present in rape leaves: cystathionine β-lyase, cystine lyase and a group of relatively non-specific lyases. C-S lyase prepns. from other glucosinolate- and non-glucosinolate-contg. species were capable of cleaving a no. of aliph. and arom. conjugates. The highest activities were detected in glucosinolate-contg. species and Allium cepa (onion). C-S lyase activities in non-glucosinolate-contg. species (tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, and barley, Hordeum vulgare) were much lower.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1MXktVeisrk%253D&md5=c39e737957b679913ab5c16b18771392
  11. 11

      Edmands, W. M. B.; Gooderham, N. J.; Holmes, E.; Mitchell, S. C.S-Methyl-l-cysteine sulphoxide: the Cinderella phytochemical?. Toxicol. Res.2013, 2, 11– 22, DOI: 10.1039/C2TX20030A

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      11

      S-Methyl-l-cysteine sulphoxide: the Cinderella phytochemical?

      Edmands, William M. B.; Gooderham, Nigel J.; Holmes, Elaine; Mitchell, Stephen C.

      Toxicology Research (Cambridge, United Kingdom) (2013), 2 (1), 11-22CODEN: TROEE8; ISSN:2045-4538. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

      A review. Many vegetables considered beneficial to human health contain the amino acid deriv., S-methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide. This plant secondary metabolite functions as a phytoalexin with strong anti-microbial activity preventing pathogenesis in growing plants. The potent biol. activity of S-methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide was first identified in ruminant animals as a toxicant, where it was demonstrated to be the kale anemia factor'. Contrary to this toxicity, scattered reports in the literature have since shown anti-carcinogenic, anti-diabetic and cardiovascular effects in exptl. animals. It has also recently been identified as a biomarker of cruciferous vegetable intake in a human dietary intervention study and a potentially significant constituent of the human metabolome. Considering the abundance and wide distribution of S-methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide it is surprising that it has not been the subject of greater scrutiny as a chemoprotective agent and significant contributor to the purported health benefits of various plant foods. This review aims to consolidate current knowledge surrounding this amino acid deriv. and provide an impetus for its further examn.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhvVSnur3E&md5=49e61c4445857430cd128da257847fe8
  12. 12

      Cooper, A. J. L.; Krasnikov, B. F.; Niatsetskaya, Z. V.; Pinto, J. T.; Callery, P. S.; Villar, M. T.; Artigues, A.; Bruschi, S. A.Cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases: important roles in the metabolism of naturally occurring sulfur and selenium-containing compounds, xenobiotics and anticancer agents. Amino Acids2011, 41, 7– 27, DOI: 10.1007/s00726-010-0552-0

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      12

      Cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases: important roles in the metabolism of naturally occurring sulfur and selenium-containing compounds, xenobiotics and anticancer agents

      Cooper, Arthur J. L.; Krasnikov, Boris F.; Niatsetskaya, Zoya V.; Pinto, John T.; Callery, Patrick S.; Villar, Maria T.; Artigues, Antonio; Bruschi, Sam A.

      Amino Acids (2011), 41 (1), 7-27CODEN: AACIE6; ISSN:0939-4451. (SpringerWienNewYork)

      A review. Cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases are pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-contg. enzymes that catalyze β-elimination reactions with cysteine S-conjugates that possess a good leaving group in the β-position. The end-products are aminoacrylate and a S-contg. fragment. The aminoacrylate tautomerizes and hydrolyzes to pyruvate and NH3. The mammalian cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases thus far identified are enzymes involved in amino acid metab. that catalyze β-lyase reactions as non-physiol. side-reactions. Most are aminotransferases. In some cases the lyase is inactivated by reaction products. The cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases are of much interest to toxicologists because they play an important key role in the bioactivation (toxication) of halogenated alkenes, some of which are produced on an industrial scale and are environmental contaminants. The cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases were reviewed in this journal previously. Here, the authors focus on more recent findings regarding: (1) the identification of enzymes assocd. with high-mol.-wt. cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases in the cytosolic and mitochondrial fractions of rat liver and kidney; (2) the mechanism of syncatalytic inactivation of rat liver mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase by the nephrotoxic β-lyase substrate, S-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine (the cysteine S-conjugate of tetrafluoroethylene); (3) toxicant channeling of reactive fragments from the active site of mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase to susceptible proteins in the mitochondria; (4) the involvement of cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases in the metab./bioactivation of drugs and natural products; and (5) the role of cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases in the metab. of selenocysteine Se-conjugates. Here, the authors emphasize the fact that cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases are biol. more important than hitherto appreciated.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXlvFWgtrw%253D&md5=a50d195728a0a4cbea393da55abf7836
  13. 13

      Frank, D.; Piyasiri, U.; Archer, N.; Jenifer, J.; Appelqvist, I.Influence of saliva on individual in-mouth aroma release from raw cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata F. rubra L.) and links to perception. Heliyon2018, 4, e01045 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e01045

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      Starkenmann, C.; Le Calve, B.; Niclass, Y.; Cayeux, I.; Beccucci, S.; Troccaz, M.Olfactory Perception of Cysteine-S-Conjugates from Fruits and Vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem.2008, 56, 9575– 9580, DOI: 10.1021/jf801873h

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      14

      Olfactory perception of cysteine-S-conjugates from fruits and vegetables

      Starkenmann, Christian; Le Calve, Benedicte; Niclass, Yvan; Cayeux, Isabelle; Beccucci, Sabine; Troccaz, Myriam

      Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2008), 56 (20), 9575-9580CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

      Volatile sulfur compds. have a low odor threshold, and their presence at microgram per kg levels in fruits and vegetables influences odor quality. Sensory anal. demonstrates that naturally occurring, odorless cysteine-S-conjugates such as S-(R/S)-3-(1-hexanol)-L-cysteine in wine, S-(1-propyl)-L-cysteine in onion, and S-((R/S)-2-heptyl)-L-cysteine in bell pepper are transformed into volatile thiols in the mouth by microflora. The time delay in smelling these volatile thiols was 20-30 s, and persistent perception of their odor occurred for 3 min. The cysteine-S-conjugates are transformed in free thiol by anaerobes. The mouth acts as a reactor, adding another dimension to odor perception, and saliva modulates flavors by trapping free thiols.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhtFGntrzL&md5=47ba6877a1103ff32b79430170a86f4b
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      Marcinkowska, M.; Jeleń, H. H.Determination of the odor threshold concentrations and partition coefficients of isothiocyanates from Brassica vegetables in aqueous solution. LWT2020, 131, 109793 DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109793

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      Determination of the odor threshold concentrations and partition coefficients of isothiocyanates from Brassica vegetables in aqueous solution

      LWT--Food Science and Technology (2020), 131 (), 109793CODEN: LSTWB3; ISSN:0023-6438. (Elsevier Ltd.)

      Isothiocyanates (ITCs) are products of the enzymic breakdown of glucosinolates and may cause pungent flavor notes in vegetables. Limited data on odor threshold concns. (OTCs) and odor quality descriptors of ITCs exist in literature. These parameters were detd. in aq. samples for 19 isothiocyanates found mainly in Brassica vegetables. Thresholds and odor quality descriptors were ascertained by panelists using flavor profile anal. (FPA). The odor threshold concns. of ITCs range from 0.005 x 10-3 (octyl ITC) to 0.2 x 10-3 (Et ITC) g/L and ITCs were mainly characterized by sulfur, garlic, and Brassica vegetable-like notes. Correlation coeffs. were between 0.946 (octyl ITC) and 0.996 (3-(methylthio)propyl ITC) and proved convincing results of OTCs using FPA. Partition coeffs. were detd. in water, artificial saliva and human saliva to provide an insight into behavior of ITCs in two-phase liq./air systems. Partition coeffs. (K) for human saliva are significantly different from other matrixes nevertheless the profile of ITCs K values in water and saliva buffer soln. were similar. In human saliva the highest K values were obsd. for octyl, hexyl and cyclohexyl ITCs, and the lowest for cyclopropyl, benzyl, allyl ITCs. Obtained data provide essential and previously unknown sensory properties for future flavor studies.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhtlWqu73M&md5=48ebf9589fe5a9281d888f238fa8326a
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      Wilby, F. V.Variation in Recognition Odor Threshold of a Panel. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.1969, 19, 96– 100, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1969.10466466

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      Variation in recognition odor threshold of a panel

      Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association (1969), 19 (2), 96-100CODEN: JPCAAC; ISSN:0002-2470.

      The recognition odor thresholds of 18 S compds. were detd. using an untrained panel of 35 people. Results were given in terms of the no. of observers detecting the compd. at various concns. The variations of the odor thresholds for each observer for each compd. as well as for the group as a whole were also studied. Individual differences in sensitivity were observed for all 18 compds.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaF1MXktVWntbs%253D&md5=ae27adf1cd26a56f7648687b5cbdb31d
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      McRae, J. F.; Jaeger, S. R.; Bava, C. M.; Beresford, M. K.; Hunter, D.; Jia, Y.; Chheang, S. L.; Jin, D.; Peng, M.; Gamble, J. C.; Atkinson, K. R.; Axten, L. G.; Paisley, A. G.; Williams, L.; Tooman, L.; Pineau, B.; Rouse, S. A.; Newcomb, R. D.Identification of Regions Associated with Variation in Sensitivity to Food-Related Odors in the Human Genome. Curr. Biol.2013, 23, 1596– 1600, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.07.031

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      17

      Identification of regions associated with variation in sensitivity to food-related odors in the human genome

      McRae, Jeremy F.; Jaeger, Sara R.; Bava, Christina M.; Beresford, Michelle K.; Hunter, Denise; Jia, Yilin; Chheang, Sok Leang; Jin, David; Peng, Mei; Gamble, Joanna C.; Atkinson, Kelly R.; Axten, Lauren G.; Paisley, Amy G.; Williams, Liam; Tooman, Leah; Pineau, Benedicte; Rouse, Simon A.; Newcomb, Richard D.

      Current Biology (2013), 23 (16), 1596-1600CODEN: CUBLE2; ISSN:0960-9822. (Cell Press)

      Humans vary in their ability to smell numerous odors, including those assocd. with food. Odor sensitivity is heritable, with examples linking genetic variation for sensitivity to specific odors typically located near olfactory receptor (OR) genes. However, with thousands of aromas and few deorphaned ORs, there has been little progress toward linking variation at OR loci to odor sensitivity. We hypothesized that OR genes contain the variation that explains much of the differences in sensitivity for odors, paralleling the genetics of taste, which affect the flavor experience of foods. We employed a genome-wide assocn. approach for ten food-related odors and identified genetic assocns. to sensitivity for 2-heptanone (p = 5.1 × 10-8), isobutyraldehyde (p = 6.4 × 10-10), β-damascenone (p = 1.6 × 10-7), and β-ionone (p = 1.4 × 10-31). Each locus is located in/near distinct clusters of OR genes. These findings increase the no. of olfactory sensitivity loci to nine and demonstrate the importance of OR-assocd. variation in sensory acuity for food-related odors. Anal. of genotype frequencies across human populations implies that variation in sensitivity for these odors is widespread. Furthermore, each participant possessed one of many possible combinations of sensitivities for these odors, supporting the notion that everyone experiences their own unique 'flavor world'.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXht1Wrs7jM&md5=f402845f81a7da55dd8dd5e4c1bf7da4
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      Bradley, M. M.; Lang, P. J.Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry1994, 25, 49– 59, DOI: 10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9

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      Measuring emotion: the Self-Assessment Manikin and the Semantic Differential

      Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry (1994), 25 (1), 49-59 ISSN:0005-7916.

      The Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) is a non-verbal pictorial assessment technique that directly measures the pleasure, arousal, and dominance associated with a person's affective reaction to a wide variety of stimuli. In this experiment, we compare reports of affective experience obtained using SAM, which requires only three simple judgments, to the Semantic Differential scale devised by Mehrabian and Russell (An approach to environmental psychology, 1974) which requires 18 different ratings. Subjective reports were measured to a series of pictures that varied in both affective valence and intensity. Correlations across the two rating methods were high both for reports of experienced pleasure and felt arousal. Differences obtained in the dominance dimension of the two instruments suggest that SAM may better track the personal response to an affective stimulus. SAM is an inexpensive, easy method for quickly assessing reports of affective response in many contexts.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADyaK2M%252FltFGrtw%253D%253D&md5=b600e5aa1a8f3a8217d0e0776375ec56
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      Bensafi, M.; Rinck, F.; Schaal, B.; Rouby, C.Verbal Cues Modulate Hedonic Perception of Odors in 5-Year-Old Children as well as in Adults. Chem. Senses2007, 32, 855– 862, DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjm055

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      Verbal cues modulate hedonic perception of odors in 5-year-old children as well as in adults

      Bensafi Moustafa; Rinck Fanny; Schaal Benoist; Rouby Catherine

      Chemical senses (2007), 32 (9), 855-62 ISSN:0379-864X.

      The judgment of pleasantness/unpleasantness is the prominent reaction to the olfactory world. In human adults, the hedonic valence of odor perception is affected by various factors, among which is an individual's lexical knowledge about smells. The present study examined whether such top-down effects of lexical knowledge on hedonic judgment of olfactory input are similar in children (5-6 years) and adults (20-25 years). In both groups, the lexical knowledge was found to influence the perception of the least emotional (or most neutral) odors: the pleasantness of the smells of banana and mint was enhanced when participants were given the corresponding odor label before olfactory sensation. These results lend support to the notion that, during childhood, smells are not only encoded perceptually but that verbal encoding also steers contextual effects that may be prominent factors in the early memorization and categorization of odors.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2sjhs1Sitg%253D%253D&md5=ac2a0fc75f3c91e76974edfd75e94890
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      Peryam, D. R.; Pilgrim, F. J.Hedonic scale method of measuring food preferences. Food Technol.1957, 11, 9– 14

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      Yuan, G.-f.; Sun, B.; Yuan, J.; Wang, Q.-m.Effects of different cooking methods on health-promoting compounds of broccoli. J. Zhejiang Univ., Sci., B2009, 10, 580– 588, DOI: 10.1631/jzus.B0920051

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      Effects of different cooking methods on health-promoting compounds of broccoli

      Journal of Zhejiang University. Science. B (2009), 10 (8), 580-8 ISSN:.

      The effects of five domestic cooking methods, including steaming, microwaving, boiling, stir-frying, and stir-frying followed by boiling (stir-frying/boiling), on the nutrients and health-promoting compounds of broccoli were investigated. The results show that all cooking treatments, except steaming, caused significant losses of chlorophyll and vitamin C and significant decreases of total soluble proteins and soluble sugars. Total aliphatic and indole glucosinolates were significantly modified by all cooking treatments but not by steaming. In general, the steaming led to the lowest loss of total glucosinolates, while stir-frying and stir-frying/boiling presented the highest loss. Stir-frying and stir-frying/boiling, the two most popular methods for most homemade dishes in China, cause great losses of chlorophyll, soluble protein, soluble sugar, vitamin C, and glucosinolates, but the steaming method appears the best in retention of the nutrients in cooking broccoli.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1MrjtVarsg%253D%253D&md5=222210af5c76aa82570c82e01c09dd9d
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      Hanschen, F. S.; Klopsch, R.; Oliviero, T.; Schreiner, M.; Verkerk, R.; Dekker, M.Optimizing isothiocyanate formation during enzymatic glucosinolate breakdown by adjusting pH value, temperature and dilution in Brassica vegetables and Arabidopsis thaliana. Sci. Rep.2017, 7, 40807 DOI: 10.1038/srep40807

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      22

      Optimizing isothiocyanate formation during enzymatic glucosinolate breakdown by adjusting pH value, temperature and dilution in Brassica vegetables and Arabidopsis thaliana

      Hanschen, Franziska S.; Klopsch, Rebecca; Oliviero, Teresa; Schreiner, Monika; Verkerk, Ruud; Dekker, Matthijs

      Scientific Reports (2017), 7 (), 40807CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)

      Consumption of glucosinolate-rich Brassicales vegetables is assocd. with a decreased risk of cancer with enzymic hydrolysis of glucosinolates playing a key role. However, formation of health-promoting isothiocyanates is inhibited by the epithiospecifier protein in favor of nitriles and epithionitriles. Domestic processing conditions, such as changes in pH value, temp. or diln., might also affect isothiocyanate formation. Therefore, the influences of these three factors were evaluated in accessions of Brassica rapa, Brassica oleracea, and Arabidopsis thaliana. Math. modeling was performed to det. optimal isothiocyanate formation conditions and to obtain knowledge on the kinetics of the reactions. At 22 °C and endogenous plant pH, nearly all investigated plants formed nitriles and epithionitriles instead of health-promoting isothiocyanates. Response surface models, however, clearly demonstrated that upon change in pH to domestic acidic (pH 4) or basic pH values (pH 8), isothiocyanate formation considerably increases. While temp. also affects this process, the pH value has the greatest impact. Further, a kinetic model showed that isothiocyanate formation strongly increases due to diln. Finally, the results show that isothiocyanate intake can be strongly increased by optimizing the conditions of prepn. of Brassicales vegetables.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXht1Ohu70%253D&md5=be1b74a5a009e74bc77f0001559c3814
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      Mendoza-Enano, M. L.; Stanley, R.; Frank, D.Linking consumer sensory acceptability to volatile composition for improved shelf-life: A case study of fresh-cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Postharvest Biol. Technol.2019, 154, 137– 147, DOI: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2019.03.018

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      Linking consumer sensory acceptability to volatile composition for improved shelf-life: A case study of fresh-cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)

      Postharvest Biology and Technology (2019), 154 (), 137-147CODEN: PBTEED; ISSN:0925-5214. (Elsevier B.V.)

      Shelf-life improvement of fresh-cut produce such as watermelon can be guided by optimizing flavor and consumer liking, while ensuring microbial quality. In this study, the impacts of postharvest processing and packaging technologies on consumer acceptability and flavor profiles of fresh-cut watermelon were evaluated. The treatments included post-cut sanitation spray (with and without), modification of the headspace gas compn. (ambient and modified atm.), lidding film permeability (perforated and non-perforated), storage temp. (3 and 7 °C) and storage period (1, 6 and 8 d). Odor-active compds. of both fresh and stored watermelon were identified by olfactometry. Changes in key odor-impact volatile compds. were measured using solid phase microextn.-gas chromatog.-mass spectrometry and proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry. Changes in the volatile compn. of samples stored at 3 °C were correlated to the consumer sensory scores for color, fresh appearance, odor, firmness, flavor, and taste. Fresh-cut watermelon packed in ambient air, sealed with non-perforated lidding film, and stored at 3 °C for both 6 and 8 d received the highest flavor and overall liking scores compared to modified atm. (5%O2 and 10%CO2). Further improvement of flavor freshness and overall acceptability was achieved when the post-cut sanitation step was removed. Results indicated that the shelf-life, as judged by overall perceived quality, can be increased from 6 to 8 d by manipulation of processing and storage conditions without compromising flavor and consumer acceptance. The study confirmed the usefulness of linking consumer acceptability to volatile measurement as a research tool to optimize product improvement.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXpsVags7k%253D&md5=ed53810fbdd5e2a0a051b15dba0dc92a
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      Frank, D.; Raeside, M.; Behrendt, R.; Krishnamurthy, R.; Piyasiri, U.; Rose, G.; Watkins, P.; Warner, R.An integrated sensory, consumer and olfactometry study evaluating the effects of rearing system and diet on flavour characteristics of Australian lamb. Anim. Prod. Sci.2017, 57, 347– 362, DOI: 10.1071/AN15006

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      Marques Pinheiro, A. C.; Nunes, C. A.; Vietoris, V.Sensomaker: a tool for sensorial characterization of food products. Cienc. Agrotecnol.2013, 37, 199– 201, DOI: 10.1590/S1413-70542013000300001

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      Frank, D.; Appelqvist, I.; Piyasiri, U.; Delahunty, C.In Vitro Measurement of Volatile Release in Model Lipid Emulsions Using Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem.2012, 60, 2264– 2273, DOI: 10.1021/jf204120h

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      26

      In vitro measurement of volatile release in model lipid emulsions using proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry

      Frank, Damian; Appelqvist, Ingrid; Piyasiri, Udayasika; Delahunty, Conor

      Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2012), 60 (9), 2264-2273CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

      The presence of fat in food plays an important role in the way aroma is released during consumption and in the creation of the overall sensory impression. Fat acts as a reservoir for lipophilic volatile compds. and modulates the timing and delivery of aroma compds. in a unique manner. Despite considerable research, reproducible in vitro methods for measuring the effect of fat on volatile release are lacking. An open in vitro cell was used to simulate the open human naso-oropharyngeal system and was interfaced with a proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS) to examine some of the fundamental effects of fat on dynamic volatile release in liq. fat emulsions. Lipid emulsions with various fat contents (0-20%) and droplet sizes (0.25, 0.5, and 5.0μM) were spiked with flavor volatiles representing a range of lipophilicity (Ko/w = 1-1380). Preloaded syringes of spiked emulsion were injected into the cell, and temporal changes in release were measured under dynamic conditions. Significant differences in release curves were measured according to the lipid content of emulsions, the vapor pressure, and Ko/w values of the volatile compds. With increasing addn. of fat, the crit. volatile release parameters, max. concn. (Imax), time to max. concn. (Tmax), and the integrated area under the concn. curve (AUC), were affected. The in vitro curves were reproducible and in agreement with theory and correlated with the preswallow phase of in vivo release data. An exponential model was used to calc. changes in mass transfer rates with increased fat addn.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhslGitLg%253D&md5=ed23f02e237edf2e297e11a1d6582454
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      van Ruth, S. M.; Grossmann, I.; Geary, M.; Delahunty, C. M.Interactions between Artificial Saliva and 20 Aroma Compounds in Water and Oil Model Systems. J. Agric. Food Chem.2001, 49, 2409– 2413, DOI: 10.1021/jf001510f

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      27

      Interactions between Artificial Saliva and 20 Aroma Compounds in Water and Oil Model Systems

      van Ruth, Saskia M.; Grossmann, Isabelle; Geary, Mike; Delahunty, Conor M.

      Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2001), 49 (5), 2409-2413CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

      The interactions between saliva components and 20 aroma compds. in water and oil model systems were systematically evaluated as a function of saliva compn. and saliva/model system ratio. Air/liq. partition coeffs. of di-Me sulfide, 1-propanol, diacetyl, 2-butanone, Et acetate, 1-butanol, 2-pentanol, Pr acetate, 3-methyl-1-butanol, Et butyrate, hexanal, Bu acetate, 1-hexanol, 2-heptanone, heptanal, α-pinene, 2-octanone, octanal, 2-nonanol, and 2-decanone were detd. by static headspace gas chromatog. Chain length of compds. within the homologous series detd. the extent of interactions with the model system or saliva. Salts in the artificial saliva hardly interacted with aroma compds. On the other hand, saliva proteins lowered retention of highly volatile compds. and increased retention of less volatile, hydrophobic compds. Significant differences in volatility of compds. when artificial saliva or water was added indicated that saliva could not be sufficiently replaced by water. The model system/saliva ratio influenced air/liq. partitioning of the aroma compds. significantly for both model systems. Although saliva compn. affected volatility of the aroma compds., the saliva/model system ratio was of much greater influence.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXjtVCqsbw%253D&md5=280f7e3d5033ef2e04653dd39093b0ce
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      Mendoza-Enano, M. L.; Stanley, R.; Frank, D.Dataset of volatile compounds in fresh and stored cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) under varying processing and packaging conditions. Data Brief2019, 104299 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2019.104299

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      28

      Dataset of volatile compounds in fresh and stored cut watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) under varying processing and packaging conditions

      Mendoza-Enano Michelle Louise; Stanley Roger; Mendoza-Enano Michelle Louise; Frank Damian; Stanley Roger

      Headspace volatile data for fresh and stored cut watermelon measured by solid phase microextraction gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (SPME GC-MS) and also proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) are reported [1]. Eight different processing and packaging storage treatments were applied to fresh and stored cut watermelon including varying the processing treatments (with vs. without post-cut sanitation spray), headspace gas composition (ambient vs. modified atmosphere), lidding film permeability (perforated vs. non-perforated), storage temperature (3 and 7 °C) for up to 8 days. A total of 41 volatile compounds were characterized by SPME GC-MS in watermelon headspace on the basis of their electron impact (EI) mass spectra. Reference chemical standards and matching linear retention indices (LRIs) were used to confirm the identity of 32 volatiles (Supplementary Table 1). PTR-MS fragmentation data for 32 key odor-active reference volatiles identified in watermelon are reported (Supplementary Table 2). PTR-MS fragment data for fresh and stored cut watermelon are provided (Supplementary Table 3).

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3Mjjt1Wisw%253D%253D&md5=debf9964dc9e9d2927a2b0e4d2619369
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      Wang, G. C.; Farnham, M.; Jeffery, E. H.Impact of Thermal Processing on Sulforaphane Yield from Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. ssp. italica). J. Agric. Food Chem.2012, 60, 6743– 6748, DOI: 10.1021/jf2050284

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      29

      Impact of Thermal Processing on Sulforaphane Yield from Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. ssp. italica)

      Wang, Grace C.; Farnham, Mark; Jeffery, Elizabeth H.

      Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2012), 60 (27), 6743-6748CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)

      In broccoli, sulforaphane forms when the glucosinolate glucoraphanin is hydrolyzed by the endogenous plant thiohydrolase myrosinase. A myrosinase cofactor directs hydrolysis away from the formation of bioactive sulforaphane and toward an inactive product, sulforaphane nitrile. The cofactor is more heat sensitive than myrosinase, presenting an opportunity to preferentially direct hydrolysis toward sulforaphane formation through regulation of thermal processing. Four broccoli cultivars were microwave heated, boiled, or steamed for various lengths of time. Prodn. of nitrile during hydrolysis of unheated broccoli varied among cultivars from 91 to 52% of hydrolysis products (Pinnacle > Marathon > Patriot > Brigadier). Boiling and microwave heating caused an initial loss of nitrile, with a concomitant increase in sulforaphane, followed by loss of sulforaphane, all within 1 min. In contrast, steaming enhanced sulforaphane yield between 1.0 and 3.0 min in all but Brigadier. These data are proof of concept that steaming for 1.0-3.0 min provides less nitrile and more sulforaphane yield from a broccoli meal.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XkvV2jsb8%253D&md5=fbe97747d1d60ed3dee31f610a3961ef
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      Spadone, J.-C.; Matthey-Doret, W.; Blank, I.Formation of Methyl (Methylthio)methyl Disulfide in Broccoli (Brassica oleracea (L.) var. italica). In Developments in Food Science; Bredie, W. L. P.; Petersen, M. A., Eds.; Elsevier, 2006; Vol. 43, pp 309– 314.

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      Dekeirsschieter, J.; Verheggen, F. J.; Gohy, M.; Hubrecht, F.; Bourguignon, L.; Lognay, G.; Haubruge, E.Cadaveric volatile organic compounds released by decaying pig carcasses (Sus domesticus L.) in different biotopes. Forensic Sci. Int.2009, 189, 46– 53, DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.03.034

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      Cadaveric volatile organic compounds released by decaying pig carcasses (Sus domesticus L.) in different biotopes

      Dekeirsschieter, J.; Verheggen, F. J.; Gohy, M.; Hubrecht, F.; Bourguignon, L.; Lognay, G.; Haubruge, E.

      Forensic Science International (2009), 189 (1-3), 46-53CODEN: FSINDR; ISSN:0379-0738. (Elsevier Ltd.)

      Forensic entomol. uses pig carcasses to surrogate human decompn. and to investigate the entomofaunal colonization. Insects communicate with their environment through the use of chem. mediators, which in the case of necrophagous insects, may consist in the cadaveric volatile org. compds. (VOCs) released by the corpse under decompn. Previous studies have focused on cadaveric VOCs released from human corpses. Nevertheless, studies on human corpses are restricted for many reasons, including ethics. Forensic entomologists use pig as animal model but very few information are available about the decompositional VOCs released by a decaying pig carcass. We here tested a passive sampling technique, the Radiello diffusive sampler, to monitor the cadaveric VOCs released by decompg. pig carcasses in three biotopes (crop field, forest, urban site). A total of 104 chem. compds., exclusively produced by the decompositional process, were identified by thermal desorption interfaced with gas chromatog. and mass spectrometry (TDS-GC-MS). Ninety, 85 and 57 cadaveric VOCs were identified on pig carcasses laying on the agricultural site, the forest biotope and in the urban site, resp. The main cadaveric VOCs are acids, cyclic hydrocarbons, oxygenated compds., sulfur and nitrogen compds. A better knowledge of the smell of death and their volatile constituents may have many applications in forensic sciences.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXnsV2qtbc%253D&md5=e3cdb5aa2fbae858b2c5c23c95b39b3b
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      Verheggen, F.; Perrault, K. A.; Megido, R. C.; Dubois, L. M.; Francis, F.; Haubruge, E.; Forbes, S. L.; Focant, J.-F.; Stefanuto, P.-H.The Odor of Death: An Overview of Current Knowledge on Characterization and Applications. BioScience2017, 67, 600– 613, DOI: 10.1093/biosci/bix046

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      Tian, S.; Liu, X.; Lei, P.; Zhang, X.; Shan, Y.Microbiota: a mediator to transform glucosinolate precursors in cruciferous vegetables to the active isothiocyanates. J. Sci. Food Agric.2018, 98, 1255– 1260, DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8654

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      Microbiota: a mediator to transform glucosinolate precursors in cruciferous vegetables to the active isothiocyanates

      Tian, Sicong; Liu, Xiaodong; Lei, Peng; Zhang, Xiaohong; Shan, Yujuan

      Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture (2018), 98 (4), 1255-1260CODEN: JSFAAE; ISSN:0022-5142. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

      Isothiocyanates (ITCs), such as sulforaphane (SFN), exhibit powerful biol. functions in fighting cancers, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. They normally exist as glucosinolates (GLSs) in cruciferous vegetables, which are not themselves bioactive until they are degraded by myrosinase to form ITCs. Myrosinase coexists in the same plants but is normally kept apart from GLSs in different app. A key point is that myrosinase is temp. sensitive and can be inactivated upon exposure to temps. over 60 °, as typically occurs during cooking. However, studies using animal models and population trials have suggested that human gut bacteria might act like an 'organ' in that they can secrete their own myrosinase. In this review, the hydrolysis of GLS by myrosinase is discussed, with an important focus on the gut microflora and their myrosinase-producing roles. © 2017 Society of Chem. Industry.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhs1WqsrvN&md5=f2688a78a78c1c73029ba117ac0f3e08
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      Dinu, V.; Gillis, R. B.; MacCalman, T.; Lim, M.; Adams, G. G.; Harding, S. E.; Fisk, I. D.Submaxillary Mucin: its Effect on Aroma Release from Acidic Drinks and New Insight into the Effect of Aroma Compounds on its Macromolecular Integrity. Food Biophys.2019, 14, 278– 286, DOI: 10.1007/s11483-019-09574-2

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      Submaxillary Mucin: its Effect on Aroma Release from Acidic Drinks and New Insight into the Effect of Aroma Compounds on its Macromolecular Integrity

      Dinu Vlad; MacCalman Thomas; Harding Stephen E; Dinu Vlad; Lim Mui; Fisk Ian D; Gillis Richard B; Adams Gary G; Harding Stephen E

      Food biophysics (2019), 14 (3), 278-286 ISSN:1557-1858.

      Submaxillary mucin is a major component that defines the makeup and functionality of saliva. Understanding its structure and function during food intake is key to designing appropriate strategies for enhancing the delivery of flavour. In the present study, the hydrodynamic integrity of bovine submaxillary mucin was characterised under physiological and acidic conditions and it was shown to have a broad molecular weight distribution with species ranging from 100 kDa to over 2000 kDa, and a random coil type of conformation. A decrease in the pH of mucin appeared to result in aggregation and a broader molecular weight distribution, which was shown to correlate with a release of flavour compounds. Our study also provides indications that p-cresol may have an effect on the macromolecular integrity of mucin.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3MvntVSmsg%253D%253D&md5=4afc57223946bce6f7d43dbac90b118e
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      Acquier, A. B.; Pita, A. K. D. C.; Busch, L.; Sánchez, G. A.Comparison of salivary levels of mucin and amylase and their relation with clinical parameters obtained from patients with aggressive and chronic periodontal disease. J. Appl. Oral Sci.2015, 23, 288– 294, DOI: 10.1590/1678-775720140458

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      Comparison of salivary levels of mucin and amylase and their relation with clinical parameters obtained from patients with aggressive and chronic periodontal disease

      Acquier, Andrea Beatriz; De Couto Pita, Alejandra Karina; Busch, Lucila; Sanchez, Gabriel Antonio

      Journal of Applied Oral Science (2015), 23 (3), 288-294CODEN: JAOSBM; ISSN:1678-7765. (Faculdade de Odontologica de Bauru)

      Objective: Salivary mucin and amylase levels are increased in patients with chronic periodontitis (CP). Due to the fact that aggressive periodontitis (AgP) not only differs from chronic periodontitis in terms of its clin. manifestation, the aim of this study was to compare salivary mucin and amylase levels and their relation to the clin. parameters of patients with aggressive periodontitis with that of patients with chronic periodontitis. Material and Methods: Eighty subjects were divided into two groups: 20 patients with AgP and their 20 matched controls and 20 patients with CP and their 20 matched controls, based on clin. attachment loss (CAL), probing pocket depth (PPD) and bleeding on probing (BOP). Whole unstimulated saliva was obtained and mucin, amylase and protein were detd. by colorimetric methods. Pearson's correlation anal. was used to det. the relationship between salivary mucin, amylase and protein levels and the clin. parameters. Results: Salivary mucin, amylase and protein levels were increased in patients with AgP and CP but there were no differences between them or between control groups. Pearson's correlation anal., detd. in the entire subjects studied, showed a pos. and significant correlation of mucin, amylase and proteins with CAL and PPD and a neg. correlation with the flow rate. When Pearson's correlation anal. was carried out in each group sep., Fisher's z transformation showed no significant difference between both groups. Conclusion: Comparison of the salivary levels of mucin, amylase and protein and their relationship with clin. parameters of AgP patients with that of CP patients revealed no differences between both groups.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXlsFSit7s%253D&md5=06100843107db6282d07d5337c84a77a
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      Hemingway, K. M.; Alston, M. J.; Chappell, C. G.; Taylor, A. J.Carbohydrate-flavour conjugates in wine. Carbohydr. Polym.1999, 38, 283– 286, DOI: 10.1016/S0144-8617(98)00103-9

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      Starkenmann, C.; Troccaz, M.; Howell, K.The role of cysteine and cysteine-S conjugates as odour precursors in the flavour and fragrance industry. Flavour Fragrance J.2008, 23, 369– 381, DOI: 10.1002/ffj.1907

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      The role of cysteine and cysteine-S conjugates as odour precursors in the flavour and fragrance industry

      Starkenmann, Christian; Troccaz, Myriam; Howell, Kate

      Flavour and Fragrance Journal (2008), 23 (6), 369-381CODEN: FFJOED; ISSN:0882-5734. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

      A review. Volatile sulfur compds. are important odorants in the flavor and fragrance industries. Recent developments in the field have reinvigorated sulfur compd. research, particularly with regard to the precursor compds. of volatile thiols. The present review concs. on the role of cysteine and cysteine-S conjugates as precursor compds. for a variety of aromas and examines the chem. and enzymic pathways of degrdn. and biotransformation. Cysteine is an important source of sulfur in flavor chem. and may be degraded into hydrogen sulfide, which can further participate in other reactions. Direct reactions of cysteine and the pathways particular to various flavors and fragrances are discussed, with an emphasis on the precursor compds. cysteine-S conjugates. The importance of cysteine precursors in plants, including onion, wine, passion fruit, bitter orange, asparagus and bell pepper and the formation of natural scents in cats and humans are discussed.

      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXivFGhtA%253D%253D&md5=fda22e958b3e8167328a95fca0d38ae3
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      Poelman, A. A. M.; Delahunty, C. M.; de Graaf, C.Vegetable preparation practices for 5–6 years old Australian children as reported by their parents; relationships with liking and consumption. Food Qual. Preference2015, 42, 20– 26, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.01.005

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      Sundström, K.; Mishra, P. P.; Pyysalo, M. J.; Lehtimäki, T.; Karhunen, P. J.; Pessi, T.Similarity of salivary microbiome in parents and adult children. PeerJ2020, 8, e8799 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8799

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